Lynching - Wikipedia

Killing carried out by a mob or vigilante group

An African-American man lynched from a tree. His face is partially concealed by the angle of the photograph and his hat.

Lynching is an extrajudicial killing by a group. It is most often used to characterize informal public executions by a mob in order to punish an alleged transgressor, punish a convicted transgressor, or intimidate. It can also be an extreme form of informal group social control, and it is often conducted with the display of a public spectacle (often in the form of hanging) for maximum intimidation.[1] Instances of lynchings and similar mob violence can be found in every society.[2][3][4]

In the United States, where the word for "lynching" likely originated, lynchings of African Americans became frequent in the South during the period after the Reconstruction era, especially during the nadir of American race relations.[5]

Etymology [ edit ]

The origins of the word lynch are obscure, but it likely originated during the American Revolution. The verb comes from the phrase Lynch Law, a term for a punishment without trial. Two Americans during this era are generally credited for coining the phrase: Charles Lynch (1736–1796) and William Lynch (1742–1820), both of whom lived in Virginia in the 1780s. Charles Lynch is more likely to have coined the phrase, as he was known to have used the term in 1782, while William Lynch is not known to have used the term until much later. There is no evidence that death was imposed as a punishment by either of the two men.[6] In 1782, Charles Lynch wrote that his assistant had administered Lynch's law to Tories "for Dealing with the negroes &c".[7]

Charles Lynch was a Virginia Quaker,[8]: 23ff  planter, and Patriot who headed a county court in Virginia which imprisoned Loyalists during the American revolutionary war, occasionally imprisoning them for up to a year. Although he lacked proper jurisdiction for detaining these persons, he claimed this right by arguing wartime necessity. Subsequently, Lynch prevailed upon his friends in the Congress of the Confederation to pass a law that exonerated him and his associates from wrongdoing. Lynch was concerned that he might face legal action from one or more of those he had imprisoned, notwithstanding that the Patriots had won the war. This action by the Congress provoked controversy, and it was in connection with this that the term Lynch law, meaning the assumption of extrajudicial authority, came into common parlance in the United States. Lynch was not accused of racist bias. He acquitted Black people accused of murder on three occasions.[9][10] He was accused, however, of ethnic prejudice in his abuse of Welsh miners.[7]

William Lynch from Virginia claimed that the phrase was first used in a 1780 compact signed by him and his neighbors in Pittsylvania County. While Edgar Allan Poe claimed that he found this document, it was probably a hoax.[citation needed ]

A 17th-century legend of James Lynch fitz Stephen, who was Mayor of Galway in Ireland in 1493, says that when his son was convicted of murder, the mayor hanged him from his own house.[11] The story was proposed by 1904 as the origin of the word "lynch".[12] It is dismissed by etymologists, both because of the distance in time and place from the alleged event to the word's later emergence, and because the incident did not constitute a lynching in the modern sense.[12][6]

The archaic verb linch, to beat severely with a pliable instrument, to chastise or to maltreat, has been proposed as the etymological source; but there is no evidence that the word has survived into modern times, so this claim is also considered implausible.[8]: 16 

History [ edit ]

Every society has had forms of extrajudicial punishments, including murder. The legal and cultural antecedents of American lynching were carried across the Atlantic by migrants from the British Isles to colonial North America.[13] Collective violence was a familiar aspect of the early American legal landscape, with group violence in colonial America being usually nonlethal in intention and result. In the seventeenth century, in the context of the Wars of the Three Kingdoms and unsettled social and political conditions in the American colonies, lynchings became a frequent form of "mob justice" when the authorities were perceived as untrustworthy.[13] In the United States, during the decades after the Civil War, African Americans were the main victims of racial lynching, but in the American Southwest, Mexican Americans were also the targets of lynching as well.[14]

Lynching attacks on African Americans, especially in the South, increased dramatically in the aftermath of Reconstruction, after slavery had been abolished and Black people gained the right to vote. The peak of lynchings occurred in 1892, after White Southern Democrats had regained control of state legislatures. Many incidents were related to economic troubles and competition. At the turn of the 20th century, southern states passed new constitutions or legislation which effectively disenfranchised most Black people and many Poor Whites, established segregation of public facilities by race, and separated Black people from common public life and facilities through Jim Crow laws. Nearly 4,800 Americans, including 3,446 African Americans, were lynched in the United States between 1882 and 1968 in what has been termed by historian Thomas E. Smith as a form of "colonial violence".[15][16]

United States [ edit ]

Bodies of three men lynched in

Georgia

, May 1892

Lynchings took place in the United States both before and after the American Civil War, most commonly in Southern states and Western frontier settlements and most frequently in the late 19th century. They were often performed without due process of law by self-appointed commissions, mobs, or vigilantes as a form of punishment for presumed criminal offences.[17] From 1883 to 1941 there were 4,467 victims of lynching. Of these, 4,027 were male, and 99 female. 341 were of unknown gender, but are assumed to be likely male. In terms of ethnicity; 3,265 were black, 1,082 were white, 71 were Mexican or of Mexican descent, 38 were American Indian, ten were Chinese, and one was Japanese.[18] (See: Interactive map of lynchings in the United States, 1883-1941)

Leo Frank's

lynching on the morning of August 17, 1915. Judge Morris, who organized the crowd after the lynching, is on the far right in a straw hat.

[19]

Europe [ edit ]

In Liverpool, a series of race riots broke out in 1919 after the end of the First World War between White and Black sailors, many of whom were demobilized. After a Black sailor had been stabbed by two White sailors in a pub for refusing to give them a cigarette, his friends attacked them the next day in revenge, wounding a policeman in the process. The police responded by launching raids on lodging houses in primarily Black neighborhoods, with casualties on both sides. A White lynch mob gathered outside the houses during the raids and chased a Black sailor, Charles Wootton into the Mersey River where he drowned.[20] The Charles Wootton College in Liverpool has been named in his memory.[21]

In 1944, Wolfgang Rosterg, a German prisoner of war known to be unsympathetic to the Nazi regime, was lynched by other German prisoners of war in Cultybraggan Camp, a prisoner-of-war camp in Comrie, Scotland. At the end of the Second World War, five of the perpetrators were hanged at Pentonville Prison – the largest multiple execution in 20th-century Britain.[22][better source needed ]

The situation is less clear with regards to reported "lynchings" in Germany. Nazi propaganda sometimes tried to depict state-sponsored violence as spontaneous lynchings. The most notorious instance of this was "Kristallnacht", which the government portrayed as the result of "popular wrath" against Jews, but it was carried out in an organised and planned manner, mainly by SS men. Similarly, the approximately 150 confirmed murders of surviving crew members of crashed Allied aircraft in revenge for what Nazi propaganda called "Anglo-American bombing terror" were chiefly conducted by German officials and members of the police or the Gestapo, although civilians sometimes took part in them. The execution of enemy aircrew without trial in some cases had been ordered by Hitler personally in May 1944. Publicly it was announced that enemy pilots would no longer be protected from "public wrath". There were secret orders issued that prohibited policemen and soldiers from interfering in favor of the enemy in conflicts between civilians and Allied forces, or prosecuting civilians who engaged in such acts.[23][24] In summary,

"the assaults on crashed allied aviators were not typically acts of revenge for the bombing raids which immediately preceded them. [...] The perpetrators of these assaults were usually National Socialist officials, who did not hesitate to get their own hands dirty. The lynching murder in the sense of self-mobilizing communities or urban quarters was the exception."[25]

On 19 March 1988, two plain-clothes British soldiers drove straight towards a Provisional IRA funeral procession near Milltown Cemetery in Andersonstown, Belfast. The men were mistaken for Special Air Service members, surrounded by the crowd, dragged out, beaten, kicked, stabbed and eventually shot dead at a waste ground.[26]

Lynching of members of the Turkish Armed Forces occurred in the aftermath of the 2016 Turkish coup d'état attempt.[27]

Latin America [ edit ]

Mexico [ edit ]

Lynchings are a persistent form of extralegal violence in post-Revolutionary Mexico.[28]

On September 14, 1968, five employees from the Autonomous University of Puebla were lynched in the village of San Miguel Canoa, in the state of Puebla, after Enrique Meza Pérez, the local priest, incited the villagers to murder the employees, who he believed were communists. The five victims intended to enjoy their holiday climbing La Malinche, a nearby mountain, but they had to stay in the village due to adverse weather conditions. Two of the employees, and the owner of the house where they were staying for the night, were killed; the three survivors sustained serious injuries, including finger amputations.[29] The alleged main instigators were not prosecuted. The few arrested were released after no evidence was found against them.[30]

On November 23, 2004, in the Tláhuac lynching,[31] three Mexican undercover federal agents investigating a narcotics-related crime were lynched in the town of San Juan Ixtayopan (Mexico City) by an angry crowd who saw them taking photographs and suspected that they were trying to abduct children from a primary school. The agents immediately identified themselves but they were held and beaten for several hours before two of them were killed and set on fire. The incident was covered by the media almost from the beginning, including their pleas for help and their murder.

By the time police rescue units arrived, two of the agents were reduced to charred corpses and the third was seriously injured. Authorities suspect that the lynching was provoked by the persons who were being investigated. Both local and federal authorities had abandoned the agents, saying that the town was too far away for them to try to intervene. Some officials said they would provoke a massacre if the authorities tried to rescue the men from the mob.

Brazil [ edit ]

According to The Wall Street Journal, "Over the past 60 years, as many as 1.5 million Brazilians have taken part in lynchings...In Brazil, mobs now kill—or try to kill—more than one suspected lawbreaker a day, according to University of São Paulo sociologist José de Souza Martins, Brazil’s leading expert on lynchings."[32]

Bolivia [ edit ]

The lynching of Bolivian President Gualberto Villarroel in Plaza Murillo, La Paz, on July 21, 1946

On July 21, 1946, a rioting mob of striking students, teachers, and miners in the Bolivian capital of La Paz lynched various government officials including President Gualberto Villarroel himself. After storming the government palace, members of the mob shot the president and threw his body out of a window. In the Plaza Murillo outside the government palace, Villarroel's body was lynched, his clothes torn, and his almost naked corpse hung on a lamp post. Other victims of the lynching included Director General of Transit Max Toledo, Captain Waldo Ballivián, Luis Uría de la Oliva, the president's secretary, and the journalist Roberto Hinojosa.[33]

Guatemala [ edit ]

In May 2015, a sixteen-year-old girl was lynched in Rio Bravo by a vigilante mob after being accused of involvement in the killing of a taxi driver earlier in the month.[34]

Dominican Republic [ edit ]

Extrajudicial punishment, including lynching, of alleged criminals who committed various crimes, ranging from theft to murder, has some endorsement in Dominican society. According to a 2014 Latinobarómetro survey, the Dominican Republic had the highest rate of acceptance in Latin America of such unlawful measures.[35] These issues are particularly evident in the Northern Region.[36]

Haiti [ edit ]

After the 2010 earthquake the slow distribution of relief supplies and the large number of affected people created concerns about civil unrest, marked by looting and mob justice against suspected looters.[37][38][39][40][41] In a 2010 news story, CNN reported, "At least 45 people, most of them Vodou priests, have been lynched in Haiti since the beginning of the cholera epidemic by angry mobs blaming them for the spread of the disease, officials said.[42]

South Africa [ edit ]

The practice of whipping and necklacing offenders and political opponents evolved in the 1980s during the apartheid era in South Africa. Residents of Black townships formed "people's courts" and used whip lashings and deaths by necklacing in order to terrorize fellow Blacks who were seen as collaborators with the government. Necklacing is the torture and execution of a victim by igniting a kerosene-filled rubber tire that has been forced around the victim's chest and arms. Necklacing was used to punish victims who were alleged to be traitors to the Black liberation movement along with their relatives and associates. Sometimes the "people's courts" made mistakes, or they used the system to punish those whom the anti-Apartheid movement's leaders opposed.[43] A tremendous controversy arose when the practice was endorsed by Winnie Mandela, then the wife of the then-imprisoned Nelson Mandela and a senior member of the African National Congress.[44]

More recently, drug dealers and other gang members have been lynched by People Against Gangsterism and Drugs, a vigilante organization.

Nigeria [ edit ]

The practice of extrajudicial punishments, including lynching, is referred to as 'jungle justice' in Nigeria.[45] The practice is widespread and "an established part of Nigerian society", predating the existence of the police.[45] Exacted punishments vary between a "muddy treatment", that is, being made to roll in the mud for hours[46] and severe beatings followed by necklacing.[47] The case of the Aluu four sparked national outrage. The absence of a functioning judicial system and law enforcement, coupled with corruption are blamed for the continuing existence of the practice.[48][49]

Kenya [ edit ]

There are frequent lynchings in Kenya, often as a mob executes a person they feel is guilty.[50] McKee (2021) is written largely with reference to a Kenya Lynchings Database that includes reports of over 2,900 lynched persons for Kenya for the years ca. 1980-2021.[51] That number, however, is just a fraction of the total for that period, which may well exceed 10,000.[52]

Palestine and Israel [ edit ]

Palestinian lynch mobs have murdered Palestinians suspected of collaborating with Israel.[53][54][55] According to a Human Rights Watch report from 2001:

During the First Intifada, before the PA was established, hundreds of alleged collaborators were lynched, tortured or killed, at times with the implied support of the PLO. Street killings of alleged collaborators continue into the current intifada ... but at much fewer numbers.[56]

On October 12, 2000, the Ramallah lynching took place. This happened at the el-Bireh police station, where a Palestinian crowd killed and mutilated the bodies of two Israel Defense Forces reservists, Vadim Norzhich (Nurzhitz) and Yosef "Yossi" Avrahami,[a] who had accidentally[57] entered the Palestinian Authority-controlled city of Ramallah in the West Bank and were taken into custody by Palestinian Authority policemen. The Israeli reservists were beaten and stabbed. At this point, a Palestinian (later identified as Aziz Salha), appeared at the window, displaying his blood-soaked hands to the crowd, which erupted into cheers. The crowd clapped and cheered as one of the soldier's bodies was then thrown out the window and stamped and beaten by the frenzied crowd. One of the two was shot, set on fire, and his head beaten to a pulp.[58] Soon after, the crowd dragged the two mutilated bodies to Al-Manara Square in the city center and began an impromptu victory celebration.[59][60][61][62] Police officers proceeded to try and confiscate footage from reporters.[59]

In July 2014, three Israeli men kidnapped Mohammed Abu Khdeir, a 16-year-old Palestinian, while he was waiting for dawn Ramadan prayers outside of his house in Eastern Jerusalem. They forced him into their car and beat him while driving to the deserted forest area near Jerusalem, then poured gasoline on him and set him on fire after he was tortured and beaten many times.[63] On November 30, 2015, the two minors involved were found guilty of Khdeirs' murder, and were respectively sentenced to life and 21 years imprisonment on February 4. On May 3, 2016, Ben David was sentenced to life in prison and an additional 20 years.[64]

On October 18, 2015, an Eritrean asylum seeker, Haftom Zarhum, was lynched by a mob of vengeful Israeli soldiers in Be'er Sheva's central bus station. Israeli security forces misidentified Haftom as the person who shot an Israeli police bus and shot him. Moments after, other security forces joined shooting Haftom when he was bleeding on the ground. Then, a soldier hit him with a bench nearby when two other soldiers approached the victim then forcefully kicked his head and upper body. Another soldier threw a bench over him to prevent his movement. At that moment a bystander pushed the bench away but the security forces put back the chair and kicked the victim again and pushed the stopper away. Israeli medical forces did not evacuate the victim until eighteen minutes after the first shooting although the victim received 8 shots.[65] In January 2016 four security forces were charged in connection with the lynching.[66] The Israeli civilian who was involved in lynching the Eritrean civilian was sentenced to 100 days community service and 2,000 shekels.[67]

In August 2012, seven Israeli youths were arrested in Jerusalem for what several witnesses described as an attempted lynching of several Palestinian teenagers. The Palestinians received medical treatment and judicial support from Israeli facilities.[68]

Afghanistan [ edit ]

On March 19, 2015 in Kabul, Afghanistan a large crowd beat a young woman, Farkhunda, after she was accused by a local mullah of burning a copy of the Quran, Islam's holy book. Shortly afterwards, a crowd attacked her and beat her to death. They set the young woman's body on fire on the shore of the Kabul River. Although it was unclear whether the woman had burned the Quran, police officials and the clerics in the city defended the lynching, saying that the crowd had a right to defend their faith at all costs. They warned the government against taking action against those who had participated in the lynching.[69] The event was filmed and shared on social media.[70] The day after the incident six men were arrested on accusations of lynching, and Afghanistan's government promised to continue the investigation.[71] On March 22, 2015, Farkhunda's burial was attended by a large crowd of Kabul residents; many demanded that she receive justice. A group of Afghan women carried her coffin, chanted slogans and demanded justice.[72]

India [ edit ]

Indian Whatsapp lynchings in 2017–18

In India, lynchings may reflect internal tensions between ethnic communities. Communities sometimes lynch individuals who are accused or suspected of committing crimes. An example is the 2006 Kherlanji massacre, where four members of a Dalit family were slaughtered by Kunbi caste members in Khairlanji, a village in the Bhandara district of Maharashtra. Though this incident was reported as an example of "upper" caste violence against members of a "lower" caste, it was found to be an example of communal violence. It was retaliation against a family who had opposed the Eminent Domain seizure of its fields so a road could be built that would have benefitted the group who murdered them.[73] The women of the family were paraded naked in public, before being mutilated and murdered. Sociologists and social scientists reject attributing racial discrimination to the caste system and attributed this and similar events to intra-racial ethno-cultural conflicts.[74][75]

There have been numerous lynchings in relation to cow vigilante violence in India since 2014,[76] mainly involving Hindu mobs lynching Indian Muslims[77][78] and Dalits.[79][80] Some notable examples of such attacks include the 2015 Dadri mob lynching,[81] the 2016 Jharkhand mob lynching,[82][83][84] 2017 Alwar mob lynching.[85][86] and the 2019 Jharkhand mob lynching. Mob lynching was reported for the third time in Alwar in July 2018, when a group of cow vigilantes killed a 31 year old Muslim man named Rakbar Khan.[87]

In the 2015 Dimapur mob lynching, a mob in Dimapur, Nagaland, broke into a jail and lynched an accused rapist on March 5, 2015 while he was awaiting trial.[88]

Since May 2017, when seven people were lynched in Jharkhand, India has experienced another spate of mob-related violence and killings known as the Indian WhatsApp lynchings following the spread of fake news, primarily relating to child-abduction and organ harvesting, via the Whatsapp message service.[89]

In 2018 Junior civil aviation minister of India had garlanded and honoured eight men who had been convicted in the lynching of trader Alimuddin Ansari in Ramgarh in June 2017 in a case of alleged cow vigilantism.[90]

In June 2019, the Jharkhand mob lynching triggered widespread protests. The victim was a Muslim man and was allegedly forced to chant Hindu slogans, including "Jai Shri Ram".[91][92]

In July 2019, three men were beaten to death and lynched by mobs in Chhapra district of Bihar, on a minor case of theft of cattle.[93]

Four civilians have been lynched by villagers in Jharkhand on witchcraft suspicion, after panchayat decided that they are practicing black magic.[94]

In popular culture [ edit ]

"Strange Fruit" [ edit ]

"Strange Fruit", a 1937 song composed by Abel Meeropol, a Jewish schoolteacher from New York inspired by the photograph of a lynching in Marion, Indiana. Meeropol said that the photograph "haunted me for days".[95] It was published as a poem in the New York Teacher and later in the magazine New Masses, in both cases under the pseudonym Lewis Allan. The poem was set to music, also by Meeropol, and the song was performed and popularized by Billie Holiday.[96] The song reached 16th place on the charts in July 1939.[citation needed ] The song has been performed by many other singers, including Nina Simone.

The Hateful Eight [ edit ]

The 2015 film The Hateful Eight, set in post Civil War America, depicts a detailed and closely focused lynching of a White woman in the finale, prompting some debate about whether it is a political commentary on racism and hate in America or if it was simply created for entertainment value.[97][98]

Michiel de Ruyter [ edit ]

Contemprary painting of the murder of the de Witts

Michiel de Ruyter, English version Admiral. A Dutch biographical film depicting the 1672 assassination of Dutch politicians Johan de Witt and Cornelis de Witt by a carefully organised lynch mob in the Netherlands. [99][100]

See also [ edit ]

Notes [ edit ]

  1. ^ Wood, Amy Louise (2009). Rough Justice: Lynching and American Society, 1874–1947. North Carolina University Press. ISBN 9780807878118. OCLC 701719807.
  2. ^ Berg, Manfred; Wendt, Simon (2011). Globalizing Lynching History: Vigilantism and Extralegal Punishment from an International Perspective . Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-230-11588-0.
  3. ^ Huggins, Martha Knisely (1991). Vigilantism and the state in modern Latin America : essays on extralegal violence. New York: Praeger. ISBN 0275934764. OCLC 22984858.
  4. ^ Thurston, Robert W. (2011). Lynching : American mob murder in global perspective. Burlington, VT: Ashgate. ISBN 9781409409083. OCLC 657223792.
  5. ^ Hill, Karlos K. (February 28, 2016). "21st Century Lynchings?". Cambridge Blog. Cambridge University Press . Retrieved July 3, 2020 .
  6. ^ a b Michael Quinion (December 20, 2008). "Lynch". World Wide Words . Retrieved August 13, 2014 .
  7. ^ a b Waldrep, Christopher (2006). "Lynching and Mob Violence". In Finkelman, Paul (ed.). Encyclopedia of African American History 1619–1895. Vol. 2. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 308. ISBN 9780195167771.
  8. ^ a b Cutler, James Elbert (1905). Lynch-law: An Investigation Into the History of Lynching in the United States. Longmans Green and Co.
  9. ^ "The Atlantic Monthly Volume 0088 Issue 530 (Dec 1901)". Digital.library.cornell.edu . Retrieved July 27, 2013 .
  10. ^ University of Chicago, Webster's Revised Unabridged Dictionary (1913 + 1828) Archived May 23, 2017, at the Wayback Machine
  11. ^ Mitchell, James (1966–1971). "Mayor Lynch of Galway: A Review of the Tradition". Journal of the Galway Archaeological and Historical Society. 32: 5–72. JSTOR 25535428.
  12. ^ a b Matthews, Albert (October 1904). "The Term Lynch Law". Modern Philology. 2 (2): 173–195 : 183–184. doi:10.1086/386635. JSTOR 432538. S2CID 159492304.
  13. ^ a b Pfeifer, Michael J. (2011). The Roots of Rough Justice : Origins of American Lynching. Urbana, Illinois: University of Illinois Press. ISBN 9780252093098. OCLC 724308353.
  14. ^ Carrigan, William D.; Clive Webb (2013). Forgotten Dead : Mob Violence against Mexicans in the United States, 1848–1928. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780195320350. OCLC 815043342.
  15. ^ "Lynchings: By State and Race, 1882–1968". University of Missouri-Kansas City School of Law. Archived from the original on June 29, 2010 . Retrieved July 26, 2010 . Statistics provided by the Archives at Tuskegee Institute.
  16. ^ Smith, Thomas E. (Fall 2007). "The Discourse of Violence: Transatlantic Narratives of Lynching during High Imperialism". Journal of Colonialism and Colonial History. Johns Hopkins University Press. 8 (2). doi:10.1353/cch.2007.0040. S2CID 162330208.
  17. ^ The Guardian, 'Jim Crow lynchings more widespread than previously thought', Lauren Gambino, February 10, 2015
  18. ^ Seguin, Charles; Rigby, David (2019). "National Crimes: A New National Data Set of Lynchings in the United States, 1883 to 1941". Socius: Sociological Research for a Dynamic World. 5: 237802311984178. doi:10.1177/2378023119841780. ISSN 2378-0231.
  19. ^ "The lynching of Leo Frank". leofranklynchers.com. Archived from the original on August 15, 2000 . Retrieved August 22, 2010 .
  20. ^ "The roots of racism in city of many cultures". Liverpool Echo. August 3, 2005 . Retrieved March 3, 2021 .
  21. ^ Brown, Jacqueline Nassy (2005). Dropping Anchor, Setting Sail: Geographies of Race in Black Liverpool. Princeton University Press, pp. 21, 23, 144.
  22. ^ "Execution at Camp 21". Caledonia.tv. Archived from the original on May 24, 2007.
  23. ^ "Hamm 1944". polizeihistorischesammlung-paul.de.
  24. ^ Germany, SPIEGEL ONLINE, Hamburg (November 19, 2001). "KRIEGSVERBRECHEN: Systematischer Mord - DER SPIEGEL 47/2001". Spiegel Online. 47 . Retrieved September 3, 2017 .
  25. ^ Grimm, Barbara: "Lynchmorde an alliierten Fliegern im Zweiten Weltkrieg". In: Dietmar Süß (Hrsg.): Deutschland im Luftkrieg. Geschichte und Erinnerung. Oldenbourg Wissenschaftsverlag, Munich 2007, ISBN 3-486-58084-1, pp. 71–84. p. 83. "Die Übergriffe auf abgestürzte alliierte Flieger waren im Regelfall keine Racheakte für unmittelbar vorangegangene Bombenangriffe. [...] Täter waren in der Regel nationalsozialistische Funktionsträger, die keine Scheu davor hatten, selbst Hand anzulegen. Der Lynchmord im Sinne sich selbstmobilisierender Kommunen und Stadtviertel war dagegen die Ausnahme."
  26. ^ Ware, John. "Guns, grenades and lynchings: Revisiting the funeral murders". The Irish Times . Retrieved December 21, 2021 .
  27. ^ "Europe's Flashpoints". Close Up — The Current Affairs Documentary. Episode 2. 2018. Event occurs at 2:12. Deutsche Welle TV. Archived from the original on August 5, 2018. Public anger erupted. Soldiers were lynched in the streets including young recruits proven to have been deceived by their generals about the true intentions of the attack. Alt URL
  28. ^ Kloppe-Santamaría, Gema (2020). In the vortex of violence: lynching, extralegal justice, and the state in post-revolutionary Mexico. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-97532-3. OCLC 1145910776.
  29. ^ Pierre, Beaucage (June 1, 2010). "Representaciones y conductas. Un repertorio de las violencias entre los nahuas de la Sierra Norte de Puebla". Trace. Travaux et recherches dans les Amériques du Centre (in Spanish) (57): 9–32. ISSN 0185-6286 . Retrieved October 1, 2018 .
  30. ^ Daniel Hernández. "A 45 años del linchamiento en Canoa, nunca se hizo justicia". YouTube (in Spanish). Archived from the original on October 7, 2013.
  31. ^ Niels A. Uildriks (2009), Policing Insecurity: Police Reform, Security, and Human Rights in Latin America Policing Insecurity: Police Reform, Security, and Human Rights in Latin America]. Rowman & Littlefield, p. 201.
  32. ^ "In Latin America, Awash in Crime, Citizens Impose Their Own Brutal Justice". The Wall Street Journal. December 6, 2018.
  33. ^ capuchainformativa_ecmn0t (July 22, 2020). "Bolivia │ Así cayó Villarroel: Miradas de la revuelta del 21 de julio de 1946". Capucha Informativa (in Spanish) . Retrieved November 29, 2020 .
  34. ^ Annie Rose Ramos; Catherine E. Shoichet; Richard Beltran (May 27, 2015). "Video of mob burning teen in Guatemala spurs outrage". Cnn.com . Retrieved September 3, 2017 .
  35. ^ Amnesty International | Working to Protect Human Rights Archived August 10, 2007, at the Wayback Machine
  36. ^ Santana, Antonio (June 9, 2012). "Linchamientos en el norte de la República Dominicana alarman a las autoridades". Lainformacion.com (in Spanish). Santiago. EFE. Archived from the original on March 4, 2016 . Retrieved September 9, 2015 .
  37. ^ "Mob justice in Haiti". thestar.com. January 17, 2010.
  38. ^ Romero, Simon; Lacey, Marc (January 17, 2010). "Looting Flares Where Authority Breaks Down". The New York Times . Retrieved September 3, 2017 .
  39. ^ "Login". Timesonline.co.uk.
  40. ^ Rory Carroll (January 16, 2010). "Looters roam Port-au-Prince as earthquake death toll estimate climbs". The Guardian.
  41. ^ Sherwell, Philip; Colin Freeman (January 16, 2010). "Haiti earthquake: UN says worst disaster ever dealt with". Telegraph.co.uk. Archived from the original on September 12, 2012 . Retrieved January 17, 2010 .
  42. ^ Valme, Jean M. (December 24, 2010). "Officials: 45 people lynched in Haiti amid cholera fears". CNN . Retrieved March 22, 2012 .
  43. ^ "4. Background: The Black Struggle For Political Power: Major Forces in the Conflict". The Killings in South Africa: The Role of the Security Forces and the Response of the State. Human Rights Watch. January 8, 1991. ISBN 0-929692-76-4 . Retrieved November 6, 2006 .
  44. ^ Beresford, David (January 27, 1989). "Row over 'mother of the nation' Winnie Mandela". The Guardian. Guardian Newspapers Limited. Archived from the original on October 8, 2006 . Retrieved March 22, 2019 .
  45. ^ a b "BBC NEWS - World - Africa - Nigeria's vigilante 'jungle justice' ". News.bbc.co.uk. April 28, 2009 . Retrieved September 3, 2017 .
  46. ^ Dachen, Isaac (October 25, 2016). "Jungle Justice: Cable thief given muddy treatment in Anambra (Graphic Photos)". Pulse.ng . Retrieved September 3, 2017 .
  47. ^ "Burning 7-year-old boy to death an embarrassment to Nigeria - Annie Idibia, Mercy Johnson". Dailypost.ng. November 18, 2016 . Retrieved September 3, 2017 .
  48. ^ "Jungle Justice: A Vicious Violation Of Human Rights In Africa". Answersafrica.com. July 24, 2015 . Retrieved September 3, 2017 .
  49. ^ Luke, Nneka (July 26, 2016). "When the mob rules: jungle justice in Africa". Deutsche Welle . Retrieved September 3, 2017 .
  50. ^ McKee, Robert. 2021. Lynchings in Modern Kenya A Continuing Human Rights Scandal. Leanpub.
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References [ edit ]

Further reading [ edit ]

External links [ edit ]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Lynchings .
Look up lynching in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

Multiple victims

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lynching