• Moe Factz with Adam Curry for January 6th 2020, Episode number 20

• Separate but Equal

• Download the mp3

• Description
  • Adam and Moe dive into the educational system, in particual the history of school segregation and forced integration

• Shownotes
  • James M. Simmons - Wikipedia
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    • Mon, 06 Jan 2020 22:37
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    • James M. Simmons (commonly referred to as Jimmy Simmons or Dr. Simmons) is an educational administrator, musician and former university president at Lamar University. James Simmons served as the 10th president of Lamar.[1] He resigned the presidency effective July 1, 2013 to return to the Lamar faculty as a music instructor. To honor his service to Lamar, The Texas State University System Board of Regents named him President Emeritus and approved the naming of the James M. "Jimmy" Simmons Music Building. The City of Beaumont formally recognized his service to Lamar and the community by changing the name of University Drive to Jimmy Simmons Boulevard.
    • Simmons is widely regarded as one of the most successful presidents in Lamar University's history. He has won numerous awards for his successful administration. In 2011 the Press Club of Southeast Texas named him Newsmaker of the Decade.[2] He previously received the award as Newsmaker of the Year in 2009 and 1999; Simmons is the only person to ever win the award twice.[3]
    • In February 2011 Simmons was named a Signature Sinfonian by Phi Mu Alpha Sinfonia, a music fraternity for men with chapters at college campuses across the country.[4] This award is given to "any Sinfonian who has exhibited a high standard of accomplishment in the profession or a commitment to service."[5]
    • In April 2009 Simmons received the prestigious Chief Executive Leadership Award for region IV of the Council for the Advancement and Support of Education (CASE). Region IV of CASE includes: Texas, New Mexico, Arkansas, Oklahoma and Mexico.[6]
    • Simmons took the reins of the Beaumont Independent School District Board of Trustees as board president in 2014 at the request of Texas Education Commissioner, Michael Williams. The former BISD board of trustees was suspended by the Texas Education Agency and replaced by a select group of managers until new leadership could be identified.
    • Education [ edit ] Simmons graduated from Beaumont High School in the spring of 1960.James Simmons started his college studies at Memphis State University in the fall of 1960. He graduated with a Bachelor of Science degree in music in 1964. He earned a master's degree from the University of Houston and a doctorate from McNeese State University.
    • Music [ edit ] Throughout his educational career, Simmons has attracted acclaim as a performer on clarinet, saxophone and piano and continues to maintain a performance schedule.[7]
    • Lamar [ edit ] Simmons' career with Lamar began in 1970 when he joined the faculty as an instructor and director of the marching band.[8] He rose through the ranks, later serving as director of bands and as chair of the Department of Music and Theatre before his appointment as dean. Dr. Simmons took office September 1, 1999 as the 10th president of Lamar University.[9] Under Dr. Simmons leadership, Lamar has advanced on many fronts. One example is the Investing in the Future Campaign started in 2006 which ultimately raised $132 million for Lamar at the time of Simmons's retirement. The campaign started with an initial goal of $50 million. Due to campaign success, the goal was increased two times. The first increase was $100 million in 2008. The goal was again increased to $125 million in January 2012 after raising $95 million with more than a year remaining in the campaign.[10][11]
    • References [ edit ] External links [ edit ]
  • The Best of Enemies (2019 film) - Wikipedia
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    • Mon, 06 Jan 2020 22:28
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    • The Best of EnemiesTeaser poster
    • Directed byRobin BissellProduced byWritten byRobin BissellBased onThe Best of Enemies: Race and Redemption in the New Southby Osha Gray DavidsonStarringMusic byMarcelo ZarvosCinematographyDavid LanzenbergEdited byHarry YoonProductioncompany
    • Astute FilmsMaterial Pictures Distributed bySTX FilmsRelease date
    • April 5, 2019 ( 2019-04-05 ) Running time
    • 133 minutesCountryUnited StatesLanguageEnglishBudget$10 million[1][2]Box office$10.2 million[1][2]The Best of Enemies is a 2019 American drama film directed and written by Robin Bissell in his feature debut. It is based on the book The Best of Enemies: Race and Redemption in the New South by Osha Gray Davidson, which focuses on the rivalry between civil rights activist Ann Atwater and Ku Klux Klan leader C. P. Ellis. The film stars Taraji P. Henson, Sam Rockwell, Babou Ceesay, Anne Heche, Wes Bentley, Bruce McGill, John Gallagher Jr., and Nick Searcy. It was released in the United States on April 5, 2019, by STX Entertainment. The film was a box office failure.
    • Plot [ edit ] 1971: at Durham, in North Carolina, Ann Atwater tries to get better housing conditions for poor black people, and is ignored by the all white judge panel. C.P. is the president of the KKK, and has a family with children. It's shown that he loves and cares for his family. Ann's daughter's school catches on fire (whether by accident or arson is unclear), and C.P. is afraid that the black children will come to the white schools. Bill Riddick sets up a meeting with the both of them, to arrange charettes to discuss segregation and other issues.
    • At first, both of them refuse since they hate each other, but then they are convinced. C.P. is a proud racist and refuses to even sit with Bill and Ann, since they are black and he is white.
    • They agree to pick some people randomly from the group to vote on the issues at the end of the meeting sessions. C.P tries to talk to these selected to vote, but is mostly rebuffed. A black reverend asks Bill if he can play gospel music at the end of each session. C.P. hotly refuses, saying that if the blacks want to sing gospel music at the charette, he should be allowed to put out his KKK items to display. Ann refuses, but Bill agrees.
    • At one meeting, a group of black teenagers try to destroy the KKK items, but Ann stops them and tells them to instead understand what the KKK is. All this is observed by C.P. from afar.
    • Then Bill makes the blacks and whites in their group sit next to each other in the cafeteria and eat. He makes C.P and Ann sit together alone. They eat in tense silence, then Ann asks C.P. if he has a boy in Murdock. C.P. hotly says that he won't talk about his boy. Murdock is a facility that takes care of disabled boys, and his son has Down Syndrome.
    • C.P. is called to Murdock, and he rushes over. His disabled son, Larry, has been put in the same room with another disabled boy. The other boy is screaming, upsetting Larry. C.P. demands that his son be placed in a room of his own, but the nurses there tell him that he can't afford it. Later, Ann visits Larry and asks a favor from Bernadette, who works there to put Larry in his own room.
    • C.P.'s wife, Mary, is overjoyed, and goes to visit Ann to thank her. Ann asks her if C.P. has always been racist, and Mary says yes. Bill takes Ann, C.P., and the rest of their group to visit the black school that was burned. C.P. is shocked by how dark and smelly it is, thanks to the damage. Ann's daughter says hi to Ann, but looks at C.P like he's evil when she finds out who he is.
    • The night before the final vote, C.P.'s KKK troublemaking friends go and threaten the selected voters to vote for segregation. C.P. finds out about this and is dismayed. Ann also finds about it and screams at C.P., calling him a coward.
    • During the voting, all the issues pass, coming down to the final issue of desegregation. One by one, the voters vote. Ann votes for it, and C.P., surprising everyone, does the same, realizing the KKK is hateful. Also, he makes a speech and rips up his KKK membership card, much to the fury of his watching KKK friends. They threaten him and try to set the gas station that he owns on fire but C.P. puts it out. Now that the white community won't buy his gas anymore, his station is going out of business. Ann and Bill visit him with smiles and they bring in the black community to buy from him instead.
    • It is revealed that the real life Ann and C.P. went around to different cities together, to talk about their experiences and remained friends to the end of C.P.'s life, with Ann giving the eulogy at his funeral.
    • Cast [ edit ] Taraji P. Henson as Ann Atwater, a civil rights activist in DurhamSam Rockwell as C. P. EllisWes Bentley as Floyd KellyBabou Ceesay as Bill RiddickAnne Heche as Mary EllisBruce McGill as Carvie OldhamJohn Gallagher Jr. as Lee TrombleyNick Searcy as Garland KeithSope Aluko as Henrietta KayeCarson Holmes as Kenneth EllisProduction [ edit ] In June 2015, it was announced that Taraji P. Henson and Sam Rockwell would star in the true story based civil rights drama, an adaptation of Osha Gray Davidson's book The Best of Enemies: Race and Redemption in the New South. Robin Bissell was attached to make his directorial debut from his own script.[3] Filming began on May 22, 2017, in Georgia.[4] In July 2018, STX Entertainment acquired the film's domestic distribution rights.[5] Producers on the film were Danny Strong, Fred Bernstein, Matt Berenson, Bissell, Dominique Telson, and Material Pictures' Tobey Maguire and Matthew Plouffe.[6] The trailer was released on October 11, 2018.[7]
    • Release [ edit ] The Best of Enemies was released in the United States on April 5, 2019, by STX Entertainment,[6] and was released on DVD and Blu-ray on June 18, 2019.[2]
    • Reception [ edit ] Box office [ edit ] The Best of Enemies grossed $10.2 million in North America and $11,831 in other territories, against a production budget of $10 million.[1][2]In the United States and Canada, The Best of Enemies was released alongside Shazam! and Pet Sematary, and was projected to gross $6-12 million from 1,705 theaters in its opening weekend.[8] It made $1.6 million on its first day, including $265,000 from Thursday night previews.[9] It ended up debuting to just $4.4 million, finishing sixth at the box office and marking one of the worst debuts for a STX film.[10] The film fell 55% in its second weekend to $2 million, finishing tenth.[11]
    • Critical response [ edit ] On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of 53% based on 73 reviews, with an average rating of 6.06/10. The website's critical consensus reads, "The Best of Enemies has the best of intentions, but they're derailed by a problematic perspective and a disappointing lack of insight."[12] On Metacritic, the film has a normalized score of 49 out of 100, based on 25 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews".[13] Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A" on an A+ to F scale, while those at PostTrak gave it an overall positive score of 82% and a "definite recommend" of 70%.[10]
    • References [ edit ] ^ a b c "The Best of Enemies (2019)". Box Office Mojo. IMDb . Retrieved August 11, 2019 . ^ a b c d "The Best of Enemies (2019)". The Numbers. Nash Information Services, LLC . Retrieved August 11, 2019 . ^ Jr, Mike Fleming (June 24, 2015). " ' Empire's Taraji P. Henson And Danny Strong Re-Team On Robin Bissell-Helmed 'The Best Of Enemies ' ". Deadline . Retrieved October 11, 2018 . ^ Kit, Borys (May 17, 2017). "Sam Rockwell, Taraji P. Henson Team for True-Life Drama 'The Best of Enemies' (Exclusive)". The Hollywood Reporter . Retrieved October 11, 2018 . ^ N'Duka, Amanda (July 16, 2018). " ' The Best Of Enemies': STXfilms Nabs Drama Starring Taraji P. Henson-Sam Rockwell". Deadline . Retrieved October 11, 2018 . ^ a b McNary, Dave (October 9, 2018). "Taraji P. Henson-Sam Rockwell Drama 'Best of Enemies' Sets Release Date". Variety . Retrieved October 11, 2018 . ^ Hemmert, Kylie (October 11, 2018). "Taraji P. Henson Is Ann Atwater in The Best of Enemies Trailer". ComingSoon.net . Retrieved October 11, 2018 . ^ Rebecca Rubin (April 3, 2019). "Box Office: 'Shazam!' Heads Toward $45 Million-Plus Opening Weekend". Variety . Retrieved April 3, 2019 . ^ Anthony D'Alessandro; Nancy Tartaglione (April 5, 2019). " ' Shazam!' Whams $5.9M In Thursday Night U.S. Previews For $9.2M Cume, Eyes $145M+ WW Launch '' Friday AM Update". Deadline Hollywood . Retrieved April 5, 2019 . ^ a b Anthony D'Alessandro (April 6, 2019). " ' Shazam!' Surges To $53M+ Opening; 'Pet Sematary' Claws $24M '' Saturday AM B.O. Update". Deadline Hollywood . Retrieved April 6, 2019 . ^ Anthony D'Alessandro (April 14, 2019). " ' Shazam!' Still The Man With $23M+; 'Little' Grows Up; 'Hellboy' Cold With $12M+; 'After' Works Overseas '' Midday B.O. Update". Deadline Hollywood . Retrieved April 14, 2019 . ^ "The Best of Enemies (2019)". Rotten Tomatoes. Fandango . Retrieved May 18, 2019 . ^ "The Best of Enemies Reviews". Metacritic. CBS Interactive . Retrieved August 11, 2019 . External links [ edit ]
  • Black History Month - Wikipedia
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    • Mon, 06 Jan 2020 22:25
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    • Annual celebration of Black history
    • Black History Month is an annual observance originating in the United States, where it is also known as African-American History Month. It has received official recognition from governments in the United States and Canada, and more recently has been observed unofficially in Ireland, the Netherlands, and the United Kingdom. It began as a way of remembering important people and events in the history of the African diaspora. It is celebrated in February in the United States[6] and Canada,[7] while in Ireland, the Netherlands, and the United Kingdom it is observed in October.[8][9][5]
    • History Negro History Week (1926) The precursor to Black History Month was created in 1926 in the United States, when historian Carter G. Woodson and the Association for the Study of Negro Life and History announced the second week of February to be "Negro History Week".[10] This week was chosen because it coincided with the birthday of Abraham Lincoln on February 12 and of Frederick Douglass on February 14, both of which dates black communities had celebrated together since the late 19th century.[10] Negro History Week was the center of the equation. The thought-process behind the week was never recorded, but scholars acknowledge two reasons for its birth: recognition and importance.[11] Woodson felt deeply that at least one week would allow for the general movement to become something annually celebrated. Also, after the ten year long haul to successfully complete his "Journal of Negro History", he realized the subject deserved to resonate with a greater audience.
    • From the event's initial phase, primary emphasis was placed on encouraging the coordinated teaching of the history of American blacks in the nation's public schools. The first Negro History Week was met with a lukewarm response, gaining the cooperation of the Departments of Education of the states of North Carolina, Delaware, and West Virginia as well as the city school administrations of Baltimore and Washington, D.C..[12] Despite this far from universal observance, the event was regarded by Woodson as "one of the most fortunate steps ever taken by the Association", and plans for a repeat of the event on an annual basis continued apace.[12]
    • At the time of Negro History Week's launch, Woodson contended that the teaching of black history was essential to ensure the physical and intellectual survival of the race within broader society:
    • If a race has no history, it has no worthwhile tradition, it becomes a negligible factor in the thought of the world, and it stands in danger of being exterminated. The American Indian left no continuous record. He did not appreciate the value of tradition; and where is he today? The Hebrew keenly appreciated the value of tradition, as is attested by the Bible itself. In spite of worldwide persecution, therefore, he is a great factor in our civilization.[13]
    • By 1929, The Journal of Negro History was able to note that with only two exceptions, officials with the State Departments of Educations of "every state with considerable Negro population" had made the event known to that state's teachers and distributed official literature associated with the event".[14] Churches also played a significant role in the distribution of literature in association with Negro History Week during this initial interval, with the mainstream and black press aiding in the publicity effort.[15]
    • Negro History Week was met with enthusiastic response; it prompted the creation of black history clubs, an increase in interest among teachers, and interest from progressive whites. Negro History Week grew in popularity throughout the following decades, with mayors across the United States endorsing it as a holiday.[10]
    • On February 21, 2016, 106-year Washington D.C. resident and school volunteer Virginia McLaurin visited the White House as part of Black History Month. When asked by the president why she was there, McLaurin said, "A black president. A black wife. And I'm here to celebrate black history. That's what I'm here for."[16]
    • United States: Black History Month (1970) The Black United Students first Black culture center (Kuumba House) where many events of the first Black History Month celebration took place.
    • Black History Month was first proposed by black educators and the Black United Students at Kent State University in February 1969. The first celebration of Black History Month took place at Kent State one year later, from January 2, 1970 '' February 28, 1970.[6]
    • Six years later, Black History Month was being celebrated all across the country in educational institutions, centers of Black culture and community centers, both great and small, when President Gerald Ford recognized Black History Month, during the celebration of the United States Bicentennial. He urged Americans to "seize the opportunity to honor the too-often neglected accomplishments of black Americans in every area of endeavor throughout our history".[17]
    • United Kingdom (1987) Black History Month was first celebrated in the United Kingdom in 1987. It was organised through the leadership of Ghanaian analyst Akyaaba Addai-Sebo, who had served as a coordinator of special projects for the Greater London Council (GLC) and created a collaboration to get it underway.[18] It was first celebrated in London.[19]
    • Canada (1995) In 1995, after a motion by politician Jean Augustine, representing the riding of Etobicoke'--Lakeshore in Ontario, Canada's House of Commons officially recognized February as Black History Month and honored Black Canadians. In 2008, Senator Donald Oliver moved to have the Senate officially recognize Black History Month, which was unanimously approved.[7]
    • Republic of Ireland (2010) Ireland's Great Hunger Institute, at Quinnipiac University in Connecticut, notes: ''Black History Month Ireland was initiated in Cork in 2010. This location seems particularly appropriate as, in the 19th century, the city was a leading center of abolition, and the male and female anti-slavery societies welcomed a number of black abolitionists to lecture there, including Charles Lenox Remond and Frederick Douglass."[20]
    • Criticism Universally, a reliable education system is consistently one of the most important pillars of society. Among that pillar, the existence of Black History Month has frequently been a topic of debate in the educational field. There's often an annual debate about the continued usefulness and fairness of a designated month dedicated to the history of one race. One concern is that the inclusion of black history will discredit the accuracy of history as well as exclude the crucial parts, and distract children from what really matters when they enter their desired careers.[21] Criticisms include questions over whether it is appropriate to confine the celebration of black history to one month, as opposed to integration of black history into the mainstream education the rest of the year. Another criticism is that contrary to the original inspiration for Black History Month, which was a desire to redress the manner in which American schools failed to represent black historical figures as anything other than slaves or colonial subjects, Black History Month reduces complex historical figures to overly simplified objects of hero worship. Other critics refer to the celebration as racist,[22] and that its existence will do damage to the position of Europe and the United States in their places of world history.
    • Actor and director Morgan Freeman and actress Stacey Dash have criticized the concept of declaring only one month as Black History Month.[23][24] Freeman noted, "I don't want a Black history month. Black history is American history."[25] Supporters argue Black History Month will integrate much needed cultural inclusion and promote a positive, accepting environment where students can learn the history of a people in a primarily Caucasian narrative of history.[citation needed ]
    • See also African-American Heritage SitesAfrican-American historyAfrican-American Music Appreciation MonthOther history months Asian Pacific American Heritage MonthFilipino American History MonthWomen's History MonthLGBT History MonthHeritage months Irish-American Heritage MonthJewish American Heritage MonthArab American Heritage MonthNational Hispanic Heritage MonthPuerto Rican Heritage MonthNational Tibetan American Heritage MonthNative American Indian Heritage MonthGay and Lesbian Pride MonthInternational Black Awareness Day, Brazil ^ Lou Veal, "'Black History Month' begins with opening of culture center", Daily Kent Stater, Volume LV, Number 52, February 3, 1970, Kent State University. ^ Wayde Compton, "Remembering Hogan's Alley, hub of Vancouver's black community", CBC News, February 14, 2016. ^ "Black History Month Introduction; Prime Minister, Theresa May", September 28, 2016. ^ "Black History Month Hamburg". www.facebook.com. ^ a b "Black History Month 2011 '' The Association of Students of African Heritage (ASAH) Netherlands", Afro-Europe, February 1, 2011. ^ a b Wilson, Milton. "Involvement/2 Years Later: A Report On Programming In The Area Of Black Student Concerns At Kent State University, 1968''1970". Special Collections and Archives: Milton E. Wilson, Jr. papers, 1965''1994. Kent State University . Retrieved September 28, 2012 . ^ a b "About Black History Month". Citizenship and Immigration Canada. Archived from the original on February 1, 2012 . Retrieved February 14, 2012 . ^ Ryan, 'rla. "Ireland becomes fourth country in world to celebrate Black History Month". TheJournal.ie. ^ "BHM365". Black History Month 365 . Retrieved March 13, 2017 . ^ a b c Daryl Michael Scott, "The Origins of Black History Month," Archived February 14, 2013, at the Wayback Machine Association for the Study of African American Life and History, 2011, www.asalh.org/ ^ Reddick, L.D (January''June 2002). "25 Negro History Weeks". The Negro History Bulletin. 65. ^ a b C.G. Woodson, "Negro History Week," Journal of Negro History, vol. 11, no. 2 (April 1926), p. 238. ^ Woodson, "Negro History Week", p. 239. ^ "Negro History Week: The Fourth Year", Journal of Negro History, vol. 14, no. 2 (April 1929), p. 109. ^ "Negro History Week: The Fourth Year", p. 110. ^ " ' I am so happy': 106-year-old woman dances with joy as she meets Obama". CTVNews. February 22, 2016 . Retrieved December 1, 2018 . ^ "President Gerald R. Ford's Message on the Observance of Black History Month". Gerald R. Ford Presidential Library and Museum. University of Texas. Archived from the original on January 19, 2013 . Retrieved February 14, 2012 . ^ Kubara Zamani, "Akyaaba Addai-Sebo Interview", Every Generation Media, reprinted from New African magazine. ^ "Black History Month FAQ". Black History Month. Archived from the original on February 21, 2012 . Retrieved February 14, 2012 . ^ "How Ireland is celebrating its National Black History Month". IrishCentral.com. October 12, 2018. ^ Pitre, Abul (November 3, 2002). "The Controversy Around Black History". The Western Journal of Black Studies. 26. ^ Hirsch, Afua (September 30, 2010). "Black History Month has to be more than hero worship". The Guardian . Retrieved February 14, 2012 . ^ McCarter, William Matt (2012). "There is a White Sale at Macy's: Reflections on Black History Month". International Journal of Radical Critique. 1 (2) . Retrieved January 29, 2013 . ^ "Stacey Dash says Morgan Freeman agrees with her views on Black History Month, ask for apology from 'Twitter haters'", TheGrio, January 27, 2016. ^ "Freeman calls Black History Month 'ridiculous ' ". MSNBC. December 15, 2005. Archived from the original on July 7, 2011 . Retrieved February 14, 2012 . Further reading Derrick Bell, "Brown v. Board of Education and the Black History Month Syndrome," Harvard Blackletter Law Journal, vol. 1, no. 1 (1984), p. 13.C. G. Woodson, "Negro History Week," Journal of Negro History, vol. 11, no. 2 (April 1926), pp. 238''242. In JSTOR.External links Library of Congress Black History Month WebsiteOfficial UK Black History Month WebsiteDepartment of Citizenship and Immigration Canada Black History Month websiteYoumanity and Black History Month
  • Hayti, Durham, North Carolina - Wikipedia
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    • Archived Version
    • Mon, 06 Jan 2020 22:22
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    • Historic African-American neighborhood in Durham, North Carolina
    • Durham neighborhood in North Carolina, United States
    • Hayti
    • Durham neighborhood
    • Fayetteville St., Hayti, circa 1940. Courtesy of Durham County Library, NC Collection
    • CountryUnited StatesStateNorth CarolinaCityDurhamNamed forHaitiTime zoneESTHayti (pronounced "HAY-tie"), also called Hayti District, is the historic African-American community that is now part of the city of Durham, North Carolina.[1] It was founded as an independent black community shortly after the American Civil War on the southern edge of Durham by freedmen coming to work in tobacco warehouses and related jobs in the city. By the early decades of the 20th century, African Americans owned and operated more than 200 businesses, which were located along Fayetteville, Pettigrew and Pine streets, the boundaries of Hayti.
    • The neighborhood continued to develop during the late 19th and early 20th centuries, through years of racial segregation imposed by white Democrats in the state legislature, following the Reconstruction era in the South. With black-owned businesses and services, library, hotel, theatre and hospital, the community became self-sufficient. It declined in the late 20th century, due to suburbanization, which drew some residents to newer housing outside the area. A 1958 urban renewal and freeway project took down houses and businesses in 200 acres of the community and split it with a freeway. St. Joseph's African Methodist Episcopal Church (1891) is listed on the National Register of Historic Places; its congregation was founded in 1868. The church has been used since 1975 as a community and cultural center. Hayti's residents have included African Americans who achieved national reputations for their successes.
    • History [ edit ] During the 1880s, the neighborhood increased in population and mostly black-run businesses were established. Hayti District, named after Haiti, the first independent black republic in the western hemisphere, eventually included a variety of businesses, schools, library, theatre, hotel, the Lincoln Hospital (built in 1900), and other services, making it quite self-sufficient.[2] All classes lived within Hayti, and the black-owned businesses employed numerous residents. The community of African-American majority population flourished from the 1880s through the 1940s.[3] Urban renewal pushed out African-American residents, when a 1950s project took down buildings on more than 200 acres in the heart of Hayti's business district. Efforts to remove sub-standard housing did not account for damage to the social fabric of communities by such projects; many residents and businesses were permanently displaced. Planned to ease commuting for suburban (mostly white) residents and streamline traffic through older parts of the city, the project was intended to realign streets in coordination with construction of North Carolina Highway 147, a freeway that divided the Hayti district. As most blacks had been excluded from the political system by the state's disfranchising constitution at the end of the 19th century, they were unable to influence the decisions on the location of the freeway.
    • James E. Shepard was one of the founding fathers of Hayti, along with Aaron McDuffie Moore, John Merrick and Charles Clinton Spaulding. Shepard, Moore and Merrick founded the North Carolina Mutual Life Insurance Company (1898), which became the largest and richest African-American company in the United States at the time. It had a land development company as a subsidiary, which helped build much of Hayti. The prosperous African-American funeral home owner J. C. Scarborourgh and his wife Daisy built the Scarborough House at 1406 Fayetteville St.
    • Among the churches built was St. Joseph's African Methodist Episcopal Church (1891), one of numerous AME churches established in the South following the Civil War. The AME Church was the first independent black denomination in the United States, founded in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania by free blacks in the early 19th century. St. Joseph's is listed on the National Register of Historic Places, and it has been used since 1975 as a community and cultural center.
    • The first AME services were held in Hayti District in 1868 by Edian Markham, a former slave and AME missionary, in a "brush arbor". As the congregation grew, it built a log structure called Union Bethel AME Church. Another wood church replaced that. By 1891 the community raised money for an architect-designed grand brick church, which they named St. Joseph.[4] Another major black church was White Rock Baptist, built in 1896 by a congregation organized earlier in the 19th century. After the war, blacks founded Baptist congregations independent of white supervision, and soon organized their own state and national associations.
    • In the early 1920s and 1930s, the business section on Pettigrew north of the White Rock Baptist Church was also known as "Lil" Mexico.[3] By then more than 200 African-American businesses were located along Fayetteville, Pettigrew and Pine streets, the major boundaries of Hayti during its heyday.
    • This small black community was responsible for some national "firsts":
    • It was the first all African-American community to be fully self-sufficient. By the early 20th century, it had its own schools, library, churches, barbershops, Lincoln Hospital (1900), movie theater, recreation center, and hotels.North Carolina Central University, a historically black college, was established in 1910 by James E. Shepard as a private religious school; by 1925 it became the first African-American liberal arts college in the United States to be state-funded when the state legislature made it part of the state system.The first "sit-in" happened in Hayti on June 23, 1957, when Rev. Douglas Elaine Moore, minister of Asbury Methodist, led a group of six other blacks (three women, three men) into the Royal Ice Cream Parlor, which had segregated seating according to state law, and sat down in the "white" section. When they were arrested, Moore turned to Floyd McKissick, a young Durham lawyer, for their defense. The case was eventually appealed to the U.S. Supreme Court. Durham's black Ministerial Alliance initially opposed Moore's "radical" actions, as did the citywide political organization, the Durham Committee on Negro Affairs, or DCNA. Participants in the sit-in included: Mary Elizabeth Clyburn, Rev. Douglas Elaine Moore, Claude Edward Glenn, Jesse Willard Gray, Vivian Elaine Jones, Melvin Haywood Willis, and Virginia Lee Williams.[citation needed ] Such non-violent demonstrations became a basic tool in the increasing popular activism of the civil rights movement.Two national early 20th-century African-American leaders, W. E. B. Du Bois and Booker T. Washington, visited Hayti in 1910 and 1911, respectively. They said the community was a model for all African-American communities in the United States to follow.[2]
    • Notable people [ edit ] Ernie Barnes, NFL star and nationally renowned artistBiff Henderson, staff member of Late Show with David LettermanJohn Lucas II, NBA player and professional coachClyde McPhatter, 1950''1960s musician, member of the Drifters, member of the Rock and Roll Hall of FameTracy McGrady, NBA player, finished high school in the Hayti DistrictPigmeat Markham, known in the 1950s''1960s as the National Funnyman; his family was the most prominent on its street, which came to be called (and later officially named) Markham Street in the Hayti DistrictRodney Rogers, NBA playerAndr(C) Leon Talley, fashion consultantGrady Tate, jazz drummerJohn P. Kee, gospel musicianReverend Shirley Caesar, minister, gospel musicianTommy Wilson, NFL player for Los Angeles Rams, Cleveland Brown and Minnesota VikingsIn popular culture [ edit ] The 2008 Lewis Shiner novel, Black & White, explores the history and legacy of the Hayti community.[5]
    • References [ edit ] ^ Arnold Shaw, Honkers and Shouters. The Golden Years of Rhythm and Blues, New York: Crowell-Collier Press, 1978, p. 382 ^ a b Washington, Booker T. "Durham, North Carolina, A City of Negro Enterprises," The Booker T. Washington Papers, Volume 11: 1911-12. Louis R. Harlan and Raymond W. Smock, eds. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1981. pp. 56-64 ^ a b "Hayti District: General History", Ibiblio, University of North Carolina, accessed 19 June 2012 ^ Louis Allston, "The History of St. Joseph's AME Church and the St. Joseph's Historic Foundation", St. Joseph Historic Foundation, 2012, accessed 19 June 2012 ^ "Black & White". Lewisshiner.com . Retrieved 2 November 2018 . Further reading [ edit ] Anderson, Jean Bradley. Durham County: A History of Durham, North Carolina, Durham: Duke University Press, 1990.Harris, Sheldon. Blues Who's Who: A Biographical Dictionary of Blues Singers. New York: Da Capo Press, 1979.Kotsyu, Joel A. and Frank A. Durham: A Pictorial History. Dover, NH: Arcadia Publishing, 1997.MacDonald, Thomasi. "Hayti's Ghosts." The Independent Weekly July 9''15, 1997.Phillips, Bill. "Piedmont Country Blues," Southern Exposure, Vol. 2, No. 1 (Spring/Summer 1974).Vann, Andre' D., and Beverly Washington Jones. Durham's Hayti: An African American History, Charleston, SC: Arcadia Press, 1998.Washington, Booker T. "Durham, North Carolina, A City of Negro Enterprises," The Booker T. Washington Papers, Volume 11: 1911-12. Louis R. Harlan and Raymond W. Smock, eds. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1981. pp. 56''64.External links [ edit ] "St. Joseph's Historic Foundation/Hayti Historical Center", Official Website"The Lessons of Hayti" - film documentary produced by Harlem filmmakers, Terry A. Boyd, Byron C. Hunter and Edward Harris Jr.
  • Nepotism - Wikipedia
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    • Favoritism granted to relatives
    • Nepotism is the granting of jobs to one's relatives or friends in various fields, including business, politics, entertainment, sports, religion and other activities. Nepotism is the act of using one's power to secure better jobs or unfair advantages for a family member when they may not have the right skill, experience or motivation compared to others. The term originated with the assignment of nephews to important positions by Catholic popes and bishops. Instances of business executives expediently hiring their children to their firms, is a modern-day example of nepotism in practise.
    • Nepotism refers to partiality to family whereas cronyism refers to partiality to a partner or friend. Favoritism, the broadest of the terms, refers to partiality based upon being part of a favored group, rather than job performance. Favoritism is a part of any human society and the two branches of favoritism are cronyism and nepotism. Situations of nepotism refer to when a politician's son gets a similar political position in a country, and situations when relatives of high ranking officers get easy positions in their career. This happens despite the relatives lacking the necessary qualifications. Situations of cronyism refer to where someone might get a position in a company since he is a friend of the company CEO. Nepotism and cronyism have negative consequences because the truly qualified and talented people have to face injustices and it eventually leads to corruption and brain drains. Moreover, these three are unethical practices that create social discrimination.[1]
    • Nepotism has been criticized since the ancient times by several philosophers, including Aristotle, Valluvar, and Confucius. For instance, the ancient Indian philosopher Valluvar condemned nepotism as both evil and unwise.[2]
    • Origin of the modern concept and etymology [ edit ] Borrowed from the French term 'Nepotisme', which in turn was derived from Italian 'Nepotismo' and the Latin 'nepōs' (nephews), nepotism refers to the practice of popes appointing relatives during the Middle Age and Renaissance.[3] The term comes from the Italian word nepotismo,[4][5] which is based on the Latin word nepos (nephew).[6]
    • Since the Middle Ages and until the late 17th century, some Catholic popes and bishops, who had taken vows of chastity and therefore usually had no legitimate offspring of their own, gave their nephews such positions of preference as were often accorded by fathers to sons.[7]
    • Several popes elevated nephews and other relatives to the cardinalate. Often, such appointments were a means of continuing a papal "dynasty".[8] For instance, Pope Callixtus III, head of the Borgia family, made two of his nephews cardinals; one of them, Rodrigo, later used his position as a cardinal as a stepping stone to the papacy, becoming Pope Alexander VI.[9] Alexander then elevated Alessandro Farnese, his mistress's brother, to cardinal; Farnese would later go on to become Pope Paul III.[10]
    • Paul III also engaged in nepotism, appointing, for instance, two nephews, aged 14 and 16, as cardinals, as well as making efforts to increase the territories of his illegitimate son Pier Luigi Farnese. The practice was finally limited when Pope Innocent XII issued the bull Romanum decet Pontificem, in 1692.[7] The papal bull prohibited popes in all times from bestowing estates, offices, or revenues on any relative, with the exception that one qualified relative (at most) could be made a cardinal.[11]
    • In ancient literature [ edit ] Kural literature [ edit ] In the second book of the Kural literature, which forms a manual for governments and corporations, Valluvar suggests about nepotism and favouritism thus: "If you choose an unfit person for your job just because you love and you like him, he will lead you to endless follies."[12] According to him, nepotism is both evil and unwise.[2]
    • Types [ edit ] Political [ edit ] It is a common accusation in politics when the relative of a powerful figure ascends to similar power seemingly without appropriate qualifications. The British English expression "Bob's your uncle" is thought to have originated when Robert Arthur Talbot Gascoyne-Cecil, 3rd Marquess of Salisbury, promoted his nephew, Arthur Balfour, to the esteemed post of Chief Secretary for Ireland, which was widely seen as an act of nepotism.[13]
    • One other recent example is the current Portuguese government which counts no less than 50 nominations within family ties.[14] Another more recent example can be found in the political activity in South Carolina, particularly in relation to Governor Henry McMaster, who initially gained his position after becoming the first high level state official to endorse current President Donald Trump and subsequently rose from lieutenant governor to governor of the state when President Trump appointed Nikki Haley to be the United States Ambassador to the United Nations.[15][16] Governor McMaster then went on to attempt to force a vote for the President of the University of South Carolina ahead of schedule, and in favor of his favorite candidate, Robert Caslen Jr., former superintendent of West Point Academy who was favored by President Trump and previously interviewed by the Trump administration for the position of National Security Advisor.[17][18]
    • Organizational [ edit ] Nepotism can also occur within organizations when a person is employed due to familial ties. It is generally seen as unethical, both on the part of the employer and employee.
    • In employment [ edit ] Nepotism at work can mean increased opportunity at a job, attaining the job or being paid more than other similarly situated people.[19] Arguments are made both for and against employment granted due to a family connection, which is most common in small, family run businesses. On one hand, nepotism can provide stability and continuity. Critics cite studies that demonstrate decreased morale and commitment from non-related employees,[20] and a generally negative attitude towards superior positions filled through nepotism. An article from Forbes magazine stated "there is no ladder to climb when the top rung is reserved for people with a certain name."[21] Some businesses forbid nepotism as an ethical matter, considering it too troublesome and disruptive. According to an article published in Journal of Economic impact "Financially strong families can easily influence on the hiring process for obtaining a job.[22]
    • In entertainment [ edit ] Outside of national politics, accusations of nepotism are made in instances of prima facie favoritism to relatives, in such cases as:
    • Peaches Geldof's role as magazine editor in an MTV reality show'--produced by a company owned by her father, Bob Geldof.[23]Tori Spelling's breakout role on Beverly Hills, 90210 as a result of her father Aaron Spelling's involvement with the show.[24][25][citation needed ]Hollywood's Coppola family includes many distinguished filmmakers and actors. The careers of Sofia Coppola, Nicolas Cage, and Jason Schwartzman have been attributed to aid by director Francis Ford Coppola, who cast his daughter Sofia in The Godfather Part III.[26][27] Cage changed his last name in order to distance himself from claims of nepotism.[28]Kevin Feterik was installed as the starting quarterback of the Calgary Stampeders in 2003 at the insistence of his father Michael, who bought the team in 2001.[29]In the popular chat show 'Koffee with Karan' , Kangana Ranaut called the famous film - maker Karan Johar , the 'flag '' bearer of nepotism'.See also [ edit ] References [ edit ] ^ Judy Nadler and Miriam Schulman. "Favoritism, Cronyism, and Nepotism". Santa Clara University . Retrieved 20 June 2013 . ^ a b Sundaram, P. S. (1990). Tiruvalluvar: The Kural (First ed.). Gurgaon: Penguin Books. p. 12. ISBN 978-0-14-400009-8. ^ https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/nepotism ^ "Nepotism." Dictionary.com. Retrieved 20 June 2013. ^ "In Praise of Nepotism: A Natural History". Adam Bellow Booknotes interview transcript. Archived from the original on 26 September 2010 . Retrieved 10 September 2013 . ^ "Article nepos". CTCWeb Glossary . Retrieved 10 September 2013 . ^ a b "Article Nepotism". New Catholic Dictionary. Archived from the original on 24 February 2007 . Retrieved 12 July 2007 . ^ Gianvittorio Signorotto; Maria Antonietta Visceglia (21 March 2002). Court and Politics in Papal Rome, 1492''1700. Cambridge University Press. pp. 114''116. ISBN 978-1-139-43141-5 . Retrieved 20 June 2013 . ^ "Article Pope Alexander VI". New Catholic Dictionary . Retrieved 12 July 2007 . ^ "Article Pope Paul III". Catholic Encyclopedia . Retrieved 12 July 2007 . ^ Anura Gurug(C) (16 February 2010). The Next Pope. Anura Guruge. p. 115. ISBN 978-0-615-35372-2 . Retrieved 20 June 2013 . ^ https://knowledge.wharton.upenn.edu/article/rediscovering-a-management-and-leadership-manual-in-ancient-indian-literature/ ^ Trahair, R. C. S. (1994). From Aristotelian to Reaganomics: A Dictionary of Eponyms With Biographies in the Social Science. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 72. ISBN 9780313279614. ^ https://www.rtp.pt/noticias/politica/o-nepotismo-e-o-governo-mais-de-duas-dezenas-de-parentescos_v1131035 ^ Delreal, Jose (7 January 2016). "Trump picks up endorsement from S.C. Lt. Gov. Henry McMaster". Washington Post . Retrieved 9 July 2019 . ^ "Trump names Nikki Haley as UN ambassador". BBC. 23 November 2016 . Retrieved 9 July 2016 . ^ Lucy, Catherine (18 February 2017). "Trump interviewing McMaster, West Point superintendent Caslen and others for security job". Military Times . Retrieved 9 July 2019 . ^ Daprile, Lucas (9 July 2019). "McMaster forces vote on controversial USC presidential finalist while students are away". The State . Retrieved 9 July 2019 . ^ "Nepotism at Work". Safeworkers.co.uk. 20 April 2013 . Retrieved 20 June 2013 . ^ "Family Ties: Handling Nepotism Within Your Business '' Perspectives '' Inside INdiana Business with Gerry Dick". Insideindianabusiness.com. 9 November 2010. Archived from the original on 14 May 2013 . Retrieved 20 June 2013 . ^ Kneale, Klaus. "Is Nepotism So Bad?". Forbes . Retrieved 20 June 2013 . ^ Khaliq, Muhammad Tanveer; Imran, Muhammad Ali; Ullah, Sammi; Bakhsh, Allah; Aslam, Manan; Tahir, Nimra; Yasin, Mudassar (25 March 2019). "The Impact of Nepotism on Employment Status in Public Sector Institutions: An Evidence from Fresh Graduates of Pakistan". Journal of Economic Impact. 1 (1): 07''11. ^ "Peaches Geldof bags TV reality show as magazine editor". Sunday Mirror. Archived from the original on 24 May 2008 . Retrieved 6 March 2011 . ^ "On 'So Notorious,' Tori Spelling Mocks Herself Before You Can". The New York Times . Retrieved 19 August 2017 . ^ "Tori Spelling admits getting Shannon Doherty fired from Beverly Hills 90210 and lending her dress stained with 'virgin blood' for photoshoot '' Independent.ie" . Retrieved 14 August 2017 . ^ "EXTRA: Nepotism in the Director's Chair at". Hollywood.com. 21 April 2000. Archived from the original on 6 October 2012 . Retrieved 6 March 2011 . ^ "Nothing is true, everything is permitted '' Coppola nepotism hate". Spiritof1976.livejournal.com . Retrieved 6 March 2011 . ^ Brockes, Emma (20 July 2013). "Nicolas Cage: 'People think I'm not in on the joke ' ". The Guardian . Retrieved 7 May 2018 . ^ https://www.deseretnews.com/article/994880/Family-business.html External links [ edit ] Look up nepotism in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.Wikiquote has quotations related to: Nepotism
  • Hillside High School / Homepage
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  • Samuel Woodrow Williams - Wikipedia
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    • Samuel Woodrow Williams
    • Born ( 1912-02-12 ) February 12, 1912DiedOctober 10, 1970 (1970-10-10) (aged 58)EducationMorehouse College, Howard UniversityOccupationMinister, Professor, ActivistHome townChicot County, ArkansasMovementCivil Rights MovementAwardsNAACP Meritorious award, Phi beta sigma citizenship awardSamuel Woodrow Williams was an African American Baptist minister, professor of philosophy and religion, and Civil Rights activist. Williams was born on February 12, 1912 in Sparkman (Dallas County) then grew up in Chicot County, Arkansas. Samuel Woodrow Williams attended Morehouse College where he received his bachelors in philosophy and later attended Howard University earning his masters of divinity.
    • Williams aided in the Atlanta Student Movement and helped found both the Southern Christian Leadership Council (SCLC) and the Atlanta Summit Leadership Council, which then helped to organize the Atlanta branch of the Community Relations Commission (CRC). Simultaneously he was co-chairman of the Atlanta Summit Leadership Conference and acting president of the Atlanta Branch of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP).
    • In 1947, Williams became pastor at Friendship Baptist Church and lectured at more than 20 colleges and universities throughout the South preaching that men should lead their lives through principle and moral awareness. In his final years of life Williams expanded his sermons to focus on a non-violent approach, arguing that society is a slave to social systems, social patterns, and burdened by the anxiety to destroy one another.[1] This message was conveyed through a sermon that he dedicated to Martin Luther King Jr, entitled "He was no Criminal," in 1969.[2]
    • Williams died from complications as a result of a major operation.
    • Early life [ edit ] Samuel Woodrow Williams was born the quiet county of Sparkman (Dallas County) in Little Rock, Arkansas . He was born on February 12, 1912 as the oldest of eight children of Arthur William and Annie Willie Butler Williams. Growing up Williams enjoyed hunting, fishing, playing basketball and baseball as well as reading and writing.[2]
    • Education [ edit ] In 1932-1933 he attended the historically black Philander Smith College in Little Rock and then transferred to Morehouse College in Atlanta, Ga. At Morehouse College, Williams received his Bachelor of Arts Degree in Philosophy in 1937. Williams went on earn his masters of divinity from Howard University from 1938-1942 where he was studied under Dr. Alain Locke and Dr. Benjamin E. Mays.
    • From there Williams undertook doctoral studies at University of Chicago but did not complete his doctorate program. However, he received an honorary doctorate from Arkansas Baptist Church in 1960.
    • Morehouse College [ edit ] After completing his formal educations Williams joined the faculty of Morehouse College in 1946 as the chair of the Department of Philosophy and Religion. As chair of the department he wrote annual reports to the president and lead meetings on the improvement of the department and college as a whole.[2] In 1963, Williams, as the head of the Department of Religion, expressed his concerns that there was only a minor in religion and of the absence of an honors program for the department. Williams wanted Morehouse to have religion at the center of its programs.[3]
    • During his time at Morehouse, Williams earned a reputation of intellectually rigorous and demanding of his students.[3] While teaching at Morehouse, Williams mentored the president of Samuel DuBois Cook who later become the president of Dillard University and the first black mayor of Atlanta, Maynard Jackson. Williams is also credited as mentor and former teacher of Martin Luther King Jr., leader in the Civil Rights Movement.[1]
    • NAACP [ edit ] In the 1950s Williams began his association with the Atlanta branch of the NAACP. He joined the executive branch and later became president in 1957.
    • During his time as president WIlliams engaged in his first legal battle. In January 1958 the NAACP filed suit against the Atlanta school board and forced it to begin the long and difficult process of compliance with Brown v. Board of Education. Later on Williams, having been w by the Montgomery Bus Boycott, filed a suit against the segregated Atlanta trolley system with Reverend John Porter and won in 1959.[4] Williams and the NAACP put into practice education reform, desegregation of hotels and restaurants, and challenging hotel misconduct and use of discrimination.
    • Atlanta Student Movement [ edit ] Williams played a key role in the Atlanta Student Movement. The movement was characterized by an appeal that composed both their complaints as well as their desired goals for proposed change.[2] Williams was one of the adults that encouraged students to draft "An Appeal for Human Rights," the manifesto of the Atlanta Student Movement.[2] This appeal was published in early March 1960 in the Atlanta newspapers[5] and the New York Times.[4]
    • As the NAACP president Williams pledged full support to this act of civil resistance. They conducted a nonviolent protest and civil disobedience that produced productive dialogues between activists and government authorities. Forms of protest and/or civil disobedience included boycotts and sit ins that contributed to the Civil Rights Movement.[6]
    • During the same year Williams became a founding member and a vice president of the Southern Christian Leadership Council (SCLC).
    • The SCLC is an African American Civil Rights organization that began in 1957. SCLC's goal is to form an organization whose trademark is of peace and non-violence. Although during the initial years of operation, leaders like Martin Luther King Jr. and Williams encountered repression from white organization, police and the Ku Klux Klan. SCLC advocates for the involvement of churches in political activism. Members of the SCLC were harassed, threatened and attacked, yet Williams and others believed the church should continue to include social-political activity.
    • [ edit ] Williams helped found the Atlanta Summit Leadership Council (ASLC). During the 1960s and 1970s the ASLC pressured the school board and city to end segregation emphasizing boycotts, sit-ins, marches, and similar tactics that relied on mass mobilization, nonviolent resistance, and civil disobedience.[6] Through the ASLC Williams led campaigns to expose the city of Atlanta and fought to expand mass transit into the predominantly African-American west side of the city.[6]
    • In 1966 Mayor Ivan Allen established the Community Relations Commission (CRC). Mayor Allen made Williams Vice Chair of the Atlanta branch.[7] The organization gave grassroots communities a mechanism to voice their concerns to city officials at the highest level. The organization worked for ending discriminatory hiring and promotions at City Hall. The CRC, under Williams conducted a study that proves the lack of minority hiring and the promotional practices of the city of Atlanta. This study was necessary in the CRC's argument in minority promotions.
    • Friendship Baptist Church [ edit ] Friendship Baptist Church is one of the most prominent black baptist churches in Atlanta founded in 1865. In 1947 Williams became assistant pastor of Friendship Baptist Church. Later to become Senior Pastor Williams was one of the most activist-oriented pastors in Friendship's history.[8]
    • Sermons [ edit ] On February 19, 1969, Williams delivers a sermon on "A Challenge to Young Black College Students." In this, he asserts that saying only Black teachers educate Black scholars is invalid but what he believes is needed is for good committed teachers regardless of color. In his sermons, he stressed that the black community is in sophisticated evasion cloaked in the fragile robe of good faith. He wanted his audience to steer away from moral double takes that is eroding away the moral integrity of the nation. Although, Williams was pro-civil disobedience, he, on occasion, lead sermons asserting that the system of society allows for the murder of a man in order to preserve social collectivities. Williams also warned the system is what allowed the enslavement, and exploitation of Blacks due to white despising Blacks. Williams loath the way the system had set up artificial barriers to deny other men their God given right.
    • After becoming pastor in 1954, Williams made vast improvements to the church such as building a low-rent apartment complex in 1969 and a parking lot that was paid off in 8 months. Williams continue to deliver sermons all across the country, however. Samuel Williams delivered a most- notable remarkable sermon on June 30, 1968, to an all white audience at All Saints Episcopal Church. There, he urged his audience to question what was their responsibility for justice, contending the power of deciding was in their field because they made up the mast majority. That is where he established his platform of schools should e a forum for the Christian's demand for justice.
    • Criticism and legacy [ edit ] Samuel Woodrow William's legacy was his contribution to the Civil Rights Movement and sermons at Friendship Baptist Church. He had, however, left an almost forgotten legacy of racial progress in Atlanta. Young men in his community critiqued him as dictatorial and an ineffective leader. Others accused him of failing to hold elections and of supporting a public housing controversy. Williams was also criticized for supporting white officials in the firing of Eliza Paschall, director of the CRC who was too "pro-black."
    • Awards[1] [ edit ] Alpha Kappa Delta national honorary sociological fraternity (initiation certificate) - 1948Atlanta Morehouse club distinguished service award - 1959Phi Beta Sigma citizenship award (Chi Chapter) - 1959YMCA century club award - 1959Atlanta branch NAACP plague for presidency - 1964NAACP Meritorious award - 1969Community relations commission post humous - 1970YMCA men's club international ( Omega Chapter) - 1970Death [ edit ] Williams died in October 1970 after a surgical procedure.[9]
    • Further reading [ edit ] Branch, Taylor. Parting the Waters: America in the King Years, 1954''1963. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1988.Fort, Vincent. "The Atlanta Sit-In Movement, 1960''1961." In Atlanta, Georgia, 1960''1961: Sit-Ins and Student Activism, ed. David Garrow. New York: Carlson Publishing, 1989."Historic Summit Here Seeks End to All Remaining Racial Barriers: Closed Summit to Take All Day." Atlanta Inquirer, October 19, 1963, pp. 1, 17.Lee, Barry E. "'Bridge Over Troubled Waters': Samuel W. Williams and the Desegregation of Atlanta." Master's thesis, Georgia State University, 1995."Underdogs Have Defenders at City Hall." Atlanta Journal, October 4, 1970, p. 2A.References [ edit ] ^ a b c "Samuel W. Williams papers, 1932-1974". findingaid.auctr.edu . Retrieved 2016-11-15 . ^ a b c d e Wells, Rosa Marie (1 August 1975). Samuel Woodrow Williams, Catalyst for Black Atlantans, 1946-1970 (M.A. African American Studies thesis). Atlanta University. hdl:20.500.12322/cau.td:1975_wells_rosa_m. ^ a b Jones, Edward. Candle in the Dark: A History of Morehouse College. Valley Forge, PA: The Judson Press, 1967. ^ a b "Rev. Williams Elected Acting NAACP Head." Atlanta Daily World, April 3, 1970, p. 1. ^ "Historic Summit Here Seeks End to All Remaining Racial Barriers: Closed Summit to Take All Day." Atlanta Inquirer, October 19, 1963, pp. 1, 17. ^ a b c Fort, Vincent. "The Atlanta Sit-In Movement, 1960''1961." In Atlanta, Georgia, 1960''1961: Sit-Ins and Student Activism, ed. David Garrow. New York: Carlson Publishing, 1989. ^ Allen, Ivan, Jr., with Paul Hemphill. Mayor: Notes on the Sixties. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1971. ^ Davis, John L. "Rev. Sam Williams Mourned by Thousands in Final Rites." Atlanta Daily World, October 13, 1970, p. 1. ^ Barry E. Lee. "Samuel Woodrow Williams (1912''1970)". The Encyclopedia of Arkansas History & Culture . Retrieved January 20, 2017 .
  • Tony Harris (journalist) - Wikipedia
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    • Tony Harris (born 1959)[1] is a US-American television reporter, news anchor and producer, currently with Investigation Discovery. Previously Harris was a news anchor at Al Jazeera English, Al Jazeera America and CNN.[2]
    • Life and career [ edit ] Tony Harris is a B.A. graduate in English from the University of Maryland, Baltimore County.
    • He entered broadcasting as a nineteen-year-old radio disc jockey in his native Baltimore, Maryland. Two years later, he moved to television as a features reporter for an afternoon newsmagazine in Cleveland, Ohio. He rose to co-host. Moving to New York City, he worked as an entertainment reporter for Entertainment Tonight and the Home Box Office. He returned to Cleveland in the early 1990s as a weekend news anchor, then again to New York City, and Los Angeles, as a reporter for the Fox Network prime time newsmagazine Front Page.
    • He returned to local news as lead anchor for WBFF and WNUV in Baltimore, and then for WGCL-TV in Atlanta, Georgia, before joining CNN in September 2004. Based at CNN Center in Atlanta,[2] Harris co-anchored CNN Saturday Morning and CNN Sunday Morning with Betty Nguyen until he made the move to anchor CNN Newsroom on September 8, 2008. He was also a frequent substitute anchor on weekday news programs including American Morning. Harris has won an Emmy Award.
    • He left CNN at the end of December 2010.[3]
    • In April 2011, Harris debuted as an anchor on Al Jazeera English. His first broadcast was at 1600GMT on April 12, 2011.[4]
    • On August 20, 2013, he debuted as an anchor on Al Jazeera America. His first broadcast was the first regularly scheduled program ever on the network with the news at 4:00 p.m. eastern time.
    • References in popular culture [ edit ] After Harris criticized NASA for naming the new space station treadmill after comedian Stephen Colbert, Colbert responded on September 30, 2009 by naming his in-studio toilet the H.A.R.R.I.S. (Human Ass Receiving Receptacle In Studio).[5]
    • References [ edit ]
  • Separate but equal - Wikipedia
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    • Legal doctrine used for Racial segregation in the United States
    • Separate but equal was a legal doctrine in United States constitutional law, according to which racial segregation did not necessarily violate the Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution, which guaranteed "equal protection" under the law to all people. Under the doctrine, as long as the facilities provided to each race were equal, state and local governments could require that services, facilities, public accommodations, housing, medical care, education, employment, and transportation be segregated by "race", which was already the case throughout the states of the former Confederacy. The phrase was derived from a Louisiana law of 1890, although the law actually used the phrase "equal but separate".[1][better source needed ]
    • The doctrine was confirmed in the Plessy v. Ferguson Supreme Court decision of 1896, which allowed state-sponsored segregation. Though segregation laws existed before that case, the decision emboldened segregation states during the Jim Crow era, which had commenced in 1876 and supplanted the Black Codes, which restricted the civil rights and civil liberties of African Americans during the Reconstruction Era.
    • In practice the separate facilities provided to African Americans were rarely equal; usually they were not even close to equal, or they did not exist at all. For example, in the 1930 census, black people were 42% of Florida's population.[2] Yet according to the 1934''36 report of the Florida Superintendent of Public Instruction, the value of "white school property" in the state was $70,543,000, while the value of African-American school property was $4,900,000. The report says that "in a few south Florida counties and in most north Florida counties many Negro schools are housed in churches, shacks, and lodges, and have no toilets, water supply, desks, blackboards, etc. [See Station One School.] Counties use these schools as a means to get State funds and yet these counties invest little or nothing in them." At that time, high school education for African Americans was provided in only 28 of Florida's 67 counties.[3] In 1939''40, the average salary of a white teacher in Florida was $1,148, whereas for a negro teacher it was $585.[4]
    • During the era of segregation, the myth was that the races were separated but were provided equal facilities. No one believed it. Almost without exception, black students were given inferior buildings and instructional materials. Black educators were generally paid less than were their white counterparts and had more students in their classrooms.... In 1938, Pompano white schools collectively had one teacher for every 25 students, while the Pompano Colored School had one teacher for every 54 students. At the Hammondville School, the single teacher employed there had 67 students.[5]
    • "Separate but equal" facilities were found to be unconstitutional in a series of Supreme Court decisions under Chief Justice Earl Warren, starting with Brown v. Board of Education of 1954.[6][7][8] However, the subsequent overturning of segregation laws and practices was a long process that lasted through much of the 1950s, 1960s, and 1970s, involving federal legislation (especially the Civil Rights Act of 1964), and many court cases.
    • Background [ edit ] The American Civil War brought slavery in the United States to an end with the ratification of the Thirteenth Amendment in 1865.[9] Following the war, the Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution guaranteed equal protection under the law to all people and Congress established the Freedmen's Bureau to assist the integration of former slaves into Southern society. The Reconstruction Era brought new freedoms and laws promoting racial equality to the South. However, after the Compromise of 1877 ended Reconstruction and withdrew federal troops from all Southern states, many former slaveholders and Confederates were elected to office. The Fourteenth Amendment guaranteed equal protection to all people but Southern states contended that the requirement of equality could be met in a way that kept the races separate. Furthermore, the state and federal courts tended to reject the pleas by African Americans that their Fourteenth Amendment rights were violated, arguing that the Fourteenth Amendment applied only to federal, not state, citizenship. This rejection is evident in the Slaughter-House Cases and Civil Rights Cases.
    • After the end of Reconstruction, the federal government adopted a general policy of leaving racial segregation up to the individual states. One example of this policy was the second Morrill Act (Morrill Act of 1890). Before the end of the war, the Morrill Land-Grant Colleges Act (Morrill Act of 1862) had provided federal funding for higher education by each state with the details left to the state legislatures.[10] The 1890 Act implicitly accepted the legal concept of "separate but equal" for the 17 states that had institutionalized segregation.
    • Provided, That no money shall be paid out under this act to any State or Territory for the support and maintenance of a college where a distinction of race or color is made in the admission of students, but the establishment and maintenance of such colleges separately for white and colored students shall be held to be a compliance with the provisions of this act if the funds received in such State or Territory be equitably divided as hereinafter set forth.[11][12]
    • Early legal support [ edit ] Jim Crow laws [ edit ] In the late 19th century, many states of the former Confederacy adopted laws, collectively known as Jim Crow laws, that mandated separation of whites and African Americans. The Florida Constitution of 1885 mandated separate educational systems. In Texas, laws required separate water fountains, restrooms, and waiting rooms in railroad stations.[13] In Georgia, restaurants and taverns could not serve white and "colored" patrons in the same room; separate parks for each "race" were required, as were separate cemeteries.[14] These are just examples from a large number of similar laws.
    • Prior to the Second Morrill Act, 17 states excluded blacks from access to the land-grant colleges without providing similar educational opportunities. In response to the Second Morrill Act, 17 states established separate land-grant colleges for blacks which are now referred to as public historically black colleges and universities (HBCUs). In fact, some states adopted laws prohibiting schools from educating blacks and whites together, even if a school was willing to do so. (The constitutionality of such laws was upheld in Berea College v. Kentucky (1908) 211 U.S. 45)
    • Plessy v. Ferguson [ edit ] The legitimacy of such laws under the 14th Amendment was upheld by the U.S. Supreme Court in the 1896 case of Plessy v. Ferguson, 163 U.S. 537. The Plessy doctrine was extended to the public schools in Cumming v. Richmond County Board of Education, 175 U.S. 528 (1899).
    • In 1892, Homer Plessy, who was of mixed ancestry and appeared to be white, boarded an all-white railroad car between New Orleans and Covington, Louisiana. The conductor of the train collected passenger tickets at their seats. When Plessy told the conductor he was '‹ 7'8 white and '‹ 1'8 black, he was informed that he had to move to a coloreds-only car. Plessy said he resented sitting in a coloreds-only car and was arrested immediately.
    • One month after his arrest, Plessy appeared in court before Judge John Howard Ferguson. Plessy's lawyer, Albion Tourgee, claimed Plessy's 13th and 14th amendment rights were violated. The 13th Amendment abolished slavery, and the 14th amendment granted equal protection to all under the law.
    • The Supreme Court decision in Plessy v. Ferguson formalized the legal principle of "separate but equal". The ruling required "railway companies carrying passengers in their coaches in that State to provide equal, but separate, accommodations for the white and colored races".[15][unreliable source? ] Accommodations provided on each railroad car were required to be the same as those provided on the others. Separate railroad cars could be provided. The railroad could refuse service to passengers who refused to comply, and the Supreme Court ruled this did not infringe upon the 13th and 14th amendments.
    • The "separate but equal" doctrine applied to all public facilities: not only railroad cars but schools, medical facilities, theaters, restaurants, restrooms, and drinking fountains. However, neither state nor Congress put "separate but equal" into the statute books, meaning the provision of equal services to non-whites could not be legally enforced. The only possible remedy was through federal court, but costly legal fees and expenses meant that this was out of the question for individuals; it took an organization with resources, the NAACP, to file and pursue Brown v. Board of Education.
    • "Equal" facilities were the exception rather than the rule. The facilities and social services offered to African Americans were almost always of a lower quality than those offered to white Americans, if they existed at all. Most African-American schools had less public funding per student than nearby white schools; they had old textbooks, discarded by the white schools, used equipment, and poorly paid, prepared, or trained teachers.[16] In addition, according to a study conducted by the American Psychological Association, black students are emotionally impaired when segregated at a young age.[17] In Texas, the state established a state-funded law school for white students but none for black students. As previously mentioned, the majority of counties in Florida during the 1930s had no high school for African-American students. African Americans had to pay state and local taxes that were used for the benefit of whites only. (See Florida A&M Hospital for an example.)
    • Although the "Separate but Equal" doctrine was eventually overturned by the U.S. Supreme Court in Brown v. Board of Education (1954), the implementation of the changes this decision required was long, contentious, and sometimes violent (see Massive resistance and Southern Manifesto). It can be considered ongoing (see Black Lives Matter). While modern legal doctrine interprets the 14th amendment to prohibit explicit segregation on the basis of race, societal issues surrounding racial discrimination still remain topical (see Racial profiling).
    • Legal rejection [ edit ] Before Warren Court [ edit ] The repeal of such restrictive laws, generally known as Jim Crow laws, was a key focus of the Civil Rights Movement prior to 1954. In Sweatt v. Painter, the Supreme Court addressed a legal challenge to the doctrine when a Texan black student, Heman Marion Sweatt, was seeking admission into the state-supported School of Law of the University of Texas. Since Texas did not have a law school for black students, the lower court continued the case for six months so that a state-funded law school for black students (now known as Thurgood Marshall School of Law at Texas Southern University) could be created. When further appeals to the Texas Supreme Court failed, Sweatt, along with the NAACP, took the case to the federal courts, before it eventually reached the Supreme Court of the United States. Here, the original decision was reversed and Sweatt was admitted into the University of Texas School of Law. This decision was based on the grounds that the separate school failed to qualify as being "equal", because of both quantitative differences, such as its facilities, and intangible factors, such as its isolation from most of the future lawyers with whom its graduates would interact. The court held that, when considering graduate education, intangible factors must be considered as part of "substantive equality". The same day, the Supreme Court in McLaurin v. Oklahoma State Regents ruled that segregation laws in Oklahoma, which had required an African-American graduate student working on a Doctor of Education degree to sit in the hallway outside the classroom door, did not qualify as "separate but equal". These cases ended the "separate but equal" doctrine in graduate and professional education.
    • The Warren Court [ edit ] In 1953, Earl Warren became the 14th Chief Justice of the United States, and the Warren Court started a liberal Constitutional Revolution which outlawed racial segregation and "Separate but equal" throughout the United States in a series of landmark rulings.[18][19][20][21][22]
    • In Brown v. Board of Education (1954) 347 U.S. 483 , attorneys for the NAACP referred to the phrase "equal but separate" used in Plessy v. Ferguson as a custom de jure racial segregation enacted into law. The NAACP, led by the soon-to-be first black Supreme Court Justice Thurgood Marshall, was successful in challenging the constitutional viability of the "separate but equal" doctrine, and the Warren Court voted to overturn sixty years of law that had developed under Plessy. The Warren Court outlawed segregated public education facilities for blacks and whites at the state level. The companion case of Bolling v. Sharpe, 347 U.S. 497 outlawed such practices at the Federal level in the District of Columbia. Chief Justice Earl Warren wrote in the court opinion[19][21]:
    • We conclude that, in the field of public education, the doctrine of "separate but equal" has no place. Separate educational facilities are inherently unequal. Therefore, we hold that the plaintiffs and others similarly situated for whom the actions have been brought are, by reason of the segregation complained of, deprived of the equal protection of the laws guaranteed by the Fourteenth Amendment.
    • Although Brown overturned the doctrine of "separate but equal" in institutions of public education, it would be almost ten more years before the Civil Rights Act of 1964 would prohibit racial discrimination in facilities that were deemed public accommodations (transportation, hotels, etc.).
    • Additionally, in 1967, under Loving v. Virginia, the Warren Court declared Virginia's anti-miscegenation statute, the Racial Integrity Act of 1924, unconstitutional, thus invalidating all anti-miscegenation laws in the United States.[23] Chief Justice Earl Warren wrote in the court majority opinion[23][24]:
    • Under our Constitution, the freedom to marry, or not marry, a person of another race resides with the individual, and cannot be infringed by the State.
    • After Warren Court [ edit ] Although federal legislation prohibits racial discrimination in college admissions, the historically black colleges and universities continue to teach student bodies that are 75% to 90% African American.[25] However, this does not necessarily indicate racial discrimination within college admissions in those schools, when factors such as student preference are taken into account.[citation needed ] In 1975, Jake Ayers Sr. filed a lawsuit against Mississippi, stating that they gave more financial support to the predominantly white public colleges. The state settled the lawsuit in 2002, directing $503 million to three historically black colleges over 17 years.[26]
    • See also [ edit ] Anti-miscegenation laws in the United StatesJim Crow lawsRacial segregation in the United StatesReferences [ edit ] ^ "Answers - The Most Trusted Place for Answering Life's Questions". Answers.com . Retrieved 15 September 2017 . ^ "Statistical abstract of the United States" (PDF) . Bureau of the Census, U.S. Department of Commerce. 1931. p. 13. ^ Federal Writers Project (1939), Florida. A Guide to the Southernmost State, New York: Oxford University Press, p. 130 ^ Florida Education Association (April 9, 1941), Report on the Educational Opportunities for Negroes in Florida, 1941, State Archives of Florida: Collection M86-11, Box 04, Folder 5, p. 3 ^ Hobby, Daniel T. (2012). "Schools of Pompano". Broward Legacy. pp. 21''25 . Retrieved May 2, 2019 . ^ "The Court's Decision - Separate Is Not Equal". americanhistory.si.edu . Retrieved 2019-09-26 . ^ "Documents Related to Brown v. Board of Education". National Archives. 2016-08-15 . Retrieved 2019-09-26 . ^ "Earl Warren". Oyez . Retrieved 2019-09-26 . ^ Williams G. Thomas (June 24, 2008). "How Slavery Ended in the Civil War". University of Nebraska''Lincoln. ^ "A Century of Lawmaking for a New Nation: U.S. Congressional Documents and Debates, 1774''1875". Library of Congress. ^ "Act of August 30, 1890, ch. 841, 26 Stat. 417, 7 U.S.C. 322 et seq. Archived February 20, 2009, at the Wayback Machine" Act of 1890 Providing for the Further Endowment and Support Of Colleges of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts. ^ "104th Congress 1st Session, H. R. 2730 [permanent dead link ] " To eliminate segregationist monkey from the Second Morrill Act. ^ De Le"n, Arnoldo; Calvert, Robert A. (2010). "Segregation". Handbook of Texas Online. Texas State Historical Association . Retrieved February 25, 2019 . ^ McElrath, Jessica (2006). "Jim Crow Laws. Alabama, Arizona, Florida, Georgia, & Kentucky". about.com. ^ Plessy v. Ferguson. ^ "Black-white student achievement gap persists". NBC News. July 14, 2009. ^ Clark, Kenneth. "Segregation Ruled Unequal, Therefore Unconstitutional". ^ E.g., Virginia Racial Integrity Act, Virginia Code § 20''58 and § 20''59 ^ a b "The Court's Decision - Separate Is Not Equal". americanhistory.si.edu . Retrieved 2019-10-20 . ^ "The Warren Court: Completion of a Constitutional Revolution" (PDF) . William & Mary Law School Scholarship Repository. ^ a b "Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka". Oyez . Retrieved 2019-10-20 . ^ "Heart of Atlanta Motel, Inc. v. United States". Oyez . Retrieved 2019-10-20 . ^ a b "Loving v. Virginia". Oyez . Retrieved 2019-10-20 . ^ "Loving v. Virginia". LII / Legal Information Institute . Retrieved 2019-10-20 . ^ "Historically Black Colleges and Universities,1976 to 2001" (PDF) . Dept. of Education. September 2004 . Retrieved 2010-01-19 . ^ "Opposition strong to Barbour's plan to merge Mississippi's 3 black universities into 1". Associated Press. November 19, 2009 . Retrieved 2010-01-21 . Further reading [ edit ] Roche, John P. (1951). "The Future of 'Separate but Equal ' ". Phylon. 12 (3): 219''226. doi:10.2307/271632. JSTOR 271632. External links [ edit ] Media related to Racial segregation in the United States at Wikimedia Commons
    • A film clip A Study of Educational Inequalities in South Carolina is available at the Internet ArchiveCornell Legal Information Institute
  • United States Department of Education - Wikipedia
    • Link to Article
    • Archived Version
    • Mon, 06 Jan 2020 21:35
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    • United StatesDepartment of EducationSeal of the U.S. Department of Education
    • Flag of the U.S. Department of Education
    • Lyndon Baines Johnson Department of Education Building, Department HeadquartersDepartment overviewFormedOctober 17, 1979 ; 40 years ago ( 1979-10-17 ) Preceding agenciesJurisdictionFederal government of the United StatesHeadquartersLyndon Baines Johnson Department of Education Building, 400 Maryland Avenue, Southwest, Washington, D.C., U.S. 20202 Coordinates: 38°53'²11.5'"N 77°1'²7.9'"W >> / >> 38.886528°N 77.018861°W >> / 38.886528; -77.018861 Employees3912 (2018)[1]Annual budget$68 billion (2016)[2]Department executivesKey documentWebsite ed.gov The United States Department of Education (ED or DoED), also referred to as the ED for (the) Education Department, is a Cabinet-level department of the United States government. It began operating on May 4, 1980, having been created after the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare was split into the Department of Education and the Department of Health and Human Services by the Department of Education Organization Act, which President Jimmy Carter signed into law on October 17, 1979.[3][4]
    • The Department of Education is administered by the United States secretary of education. It has under 4,000 employees (2018)[1] and an annual budget of $68 billion (2016).[2] The 2019 Budget also supports $129.8 billion in new postsecondary grants, loans, and work-study assistance to help an estimated 11.5 million students and their families pay for college.[5] Its official abbreviation is "ED" ("DOE" refers to the United States Department of Energy) and is also often abbreviated informally as "DoEd".
    • Functions [ edit ] The primary functions of the Department of Education are to "establish policy for, administer and coordinate most federal assistance to education, collect data on US schools, and to enforce federal educational laws regarding privacy and civil rights."[6] The Department of Education does not establish schools or colleges.[7]
    • Unlike the systems of most other countries, education in the United States is highly decentralized, and the federal government and Department of Education are not heavily involved in determining curricula or educational standards (with the exception of the No Child Left Behind Act). This has been left to state and local school districts. The quality of educational institutions and their degrees is maintained through an informal private process known as accreditation, over which the Department of Education has no direct public jurisdictional control.
    • The Department of Education is a member of the United States Interagency Council on Homelessness,[8] and works with federal partners to ensure proper education for homeless and runaway youth in the United States.
    • Opposition to the Department of Education mainly stems from conservatives, who see the department as an undermining of states rights, and libertarians who believe it results in a state-imposed leveling towards the bottom and low value for taxpayers' money.[9]
    • Budget [ edit ] The U.S. Department of Education oversees the nation's education system. The department sets uniform rules and standards which are applied nationwide. ''Since the Department of Education (Education) began operations in fiscal year 1980, its mission has included promoting student achievement and ensuring equal access to educational opportunity. To do so, Education partners with state and local governments, which provide most of the resources to school districts for K-12 programs".[10]
    • For 2006, the ED discretionary budget was $56 billion and the mandatory budget contained $23 billion.[12] In 2009 it received additional ARRA funding of $102 billion.[13] As of 2011, the discretionary budget is $70 billion.[12]
    • History [ edit ] Establishment [ edit ] A previous Department of Education was created in 1867 but was soon demoted to an Office in 1868.[14][15] Another unsuccessful attempt at creating a Department of Education, headed by a Secretary of Education, came with the Smith''Towner Bill in 1920.[16] As an agency not represented in the president's cabinet, it quickly became a relatively minor bureau in the Department of the Interior. In 1939, the bureau was transferred to the Federal Security Agency, where it was renamed the Office of Education. In 1953, the Federal Security Agency was upgraded to cabinet-level status as the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare.
    • In 1979, President Carter advocated for creating a cabinet-level Department of Education.[17] Carter's plan was to transfer most of the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare's education-related functions to the Department of Education.[17] Carter also planned to transfer the education-related functions of the departments of Defense, Justice, Housing and Urban Development, and Agriculture, as well as a few other federal entities.[17] Among the federal education-related programs that were not proposed to be transferred were Headstart, the Department of Agriculture's school lunch and nutrition programs, the Department of the Interior's Native Americans' education programs, and the Department of Labor's education and training programs.[17]
    • Upgrading Education to cabinet level status in 1979 was opposed by many in the Republican Party, who saw the department as unconstitutional, arguing that the Constitution doesn't mention education, and deemed it an unnecessary and illegal federal bureaucratic intrusion into local affairs. However, many see the department as constitutional under the Commerce Clause, and that the funding role of the department is constitutional under the Taxing and Spending Clause. The National Education Association supported the bill, while the American Federation of Teachers opposed it.[18]
    • As of 1979, the Office of Education had 3,000 employees and an annual budget of $12 billion.[19] Congress appropriated to the Department of Education an annual budget of $14 billion and 17,000 employees when establishing the Department of Education.[20] During the 1980 presidential campaign, Gov. Reagan called for the total elimination of the U.S. Department of Education, severe curtailment of bilingual education, and massive cutbacks in the federal role in education. Once in office, President Reagan significantly reduced its budget.[21]
    • Early history [ edit ] The Republican Party platform of 1980 called for the elimination of the Department of Education created under Carter and President Ronald Reagan promised during the 1980 presidential election to eliminate it as a cabinet post,[22] but he was not able to do so with a Democratic House of Representatives.[23] In the 1982 State of the Union Address, he pledged: "The budget plan I submit to you on Feb. 8 will realize major savings by dismantling the Department of Education."[23]
    • By 1984 the GOP had dropped the call for elimination from its platform, and with the election of President George H. W. Bush in 1988, the Republican position evolved in almost lockstep with that of the Democrats, with Goals 2000 a virtual joint effort.
    • After the Newt Gingrich-led "revolution" in 1994 had taken control of both Houses of Congress, federal control of and spending on education soared. That trend continued unabated despite the fact that the Republican Party made abolition of the department a cornerstone of 1996 platform and campaign promises, calling it an inappropriate federal intrusion into local, state, and family affairs.[23] The GOP platform read: "The Federal government has no constitutional authority to be involved in school curricula or to control jobs in the market place. This is why we will abolish the Department of Education, end federal meddling in our schools, and promote family choice at all levels of learning."[23]
    • In 2000, the Republican Liberty Caucus passed a resolution to abolish the Department of Education.[24] Abolition of the organization was not pursued under the George W. Bush administration, which made reform of federal education a key priority of the president's first term. In 2008 and 2012, presidential candidate Ron Paul campaigned in part on an opposition to the department.[25]
    • Later history [ edit ] A construction project to repair and update the building fa§ade at the Department of Education headquarters in 2002 resulted in the installation of structures at all of the entrances to protect employees and visitors from falling debris. ED redesigned these protective structures to promote the
    • No Child Left Behind Act. The structures were temporary and were removed in 2008. Source: U.S. Department of Education,
    • [26]Under President George W. Bush, the department primarily focused on elementary and secondary education, expanding its reach through the No Child Left Behind Act. The department's budget increased by $14 billion between 2002 and 2004, from $46 billion to $60 billion.[23][27]
    • On March 23, 2007, President George W. Bush signed into law H.R. 584, which designates the ED Headquarters building as the Lyndon Baines Johnson Department of Education Building.[28]
    • In the time after George W. Bush's presidency and towards the end of President Barack Obama's presidency, there was an extremely noticeable problem within the education system that was excluding many children from receiving the striving opportunities that they should have been given throughout their schooling careers. So, In December 2015 President Barack Obama had instituted the Every Student Succeeds Act, which reauthorized the Elementary Secondary Education Act. ''In December 2015, the Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA) was signed into law, reauthorizing the Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA) and replacing the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB). ESEA, the federal law that authorizes federal funding for K-12 schools, represents the nation's commitment to equal educational opportunity for all students and has influenced the education of millions of children."
    • Organization [ edit ] Department of Education structure
    • See also [ edit ] Council for Higher Education AccreditationEducational attainment in the United StatesFree Application for Federal Student AidFICE codeFederal Student AidNational Diffusion NetworkSchool Improvement GrantTitle 34 of the Code of Federal Regulations [ edit ] 1965: Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA)1965: Higher Education Act of 1965 (HEA) (Pub. L. No. 89-329)1974: Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act (FERPA)1974: Equal Educational Opportunities Act of 1974 (EEOA)1975: Education for All Handicapped Children Act (EHA) (Pub. L. No. 94-142)1978: Protection of Pupil Rights Amendment1980: Department of Education Organization Act (Pub. L. No. 96-88)1984: Equal Access Act1990: The Jeanne Clery Disclosure of Campus Security Policy and Campus Crime Statistics Act (Clery Act)1994: Improving America's Schools Act of 19942001: No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB)2004: Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA)2005: Higher Education Reconciliation Act of 2005 (HERA) (Pub. L. No. 109-171)2006: Carl D. Perkins Career and Technical Education Improvement Act2007: America COMPETES Act2008: Higher Education Opportunity Act (HEOA) (Pub. L. No. 110-315)2009: Race to the Top2009: Student Aid and Fiscal Responsibility Act2010: Health Care and Education Reconciliation Act of 20102015: Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA)References [ edit ] ^ a b Stratford, Michael (22 January 2018). "Education Department goes into shutdown mode". Politico . Retrieved 25 January 2018 . ^ a b "Overview and Mission Statement - U.S. Department of Education". www2.ed.gov. ^ Pub.L. 96''88, S. 210, 93 Stat. 668, enacted October 17, 1979 ^ "Department of Education Organization Act, 1979". wordpress.com. 15 April 2011. ^ U.S. Secretary of Education (14 February 2018). "ED FY2019 Budget" (PDF) . ed.gov. ^ What We Do. ED.gov. Retrieved on 2013-07-17. ^ "An Overview of the U.S. Department of Education, p. 2". United States Department of Education . Retrieved 25 August 2012 . ^ "Department of Education | Member Agency | United States Interagency Council on Homelessness (USICH)". Usich.gov . Retrieved 25 August 2012 . ^ "Laissez-faire-learning". 25 June 2012 . Retrieved 28 June 2012 . ^ Hubbard, Janie; Swain, Holly Hilboldt (July 2017). "Using the U.S. Civil Rights Movement to explore social justice education with K-6 pre-service teachers". The Journal of Social Studies Research. 41 (3): 217''233. doi:10.1016/j.jssr.2016.09.002. ISSN 0885-985X. ^ "ED History" (PDF) . U.S. Department of Education. 25 September 2015 . Retrieved 28 February 2017 . ^ a b "Overview". U.S. Department of Education Budget Office. 12 February 2011 . Retrieved 27 March 2011 . ^ "Wayback Machine" (PDF) . archive.org. 13 January 2017. ^ "Act to Establish a Federal Department of Education, 1867". wordpress.com. 19 February 2011. ^ Chap. CLVIII. 14 Stat. 434 from "A Century of Lawmaking for a New Nation: U. S. Congressional Documents and Debates, 1774''1875". Library of Congress, Law Library of Congress. Retrieved April 25, 2012. ^ "The Smith-Towner Bill". Elementary School Journal. 20 (8): 575''583. April 1920. doi:10.1086/454812. JSTOR 994235. ^ a b c d "Department of Education Outlined". Associated Press. 9 February 1979. ^ "House Narrowly Passes Department of Education Bill". Spokane, Washington. The New York Times. 12 July 1979. ^ Hechinger, Fred M (3 September 1979). "Federal Education Branch Is Foundering, Leaderless". Lexington, North Carolina. New York Times News Service. ^ "Education Department Created". United Press International. 18 October 1979. ^ Educational Horizons: "The Educational Legacy of Ronald Reagan", Summer 2004 v. 82 n. 4 p. 256 ^ "Online Backgrounders: The Department of Education". PBS. Fall 1996 . Retrieved 26 July 2005 . ^ a b c d e Veronique de Rugy and Marie Gryphon (11 February 2004). "Elimination Lost: What happened to abolishing the Department of Education?". Cato Institute . Retrieved 15 February 2017 . This article originally appeared in National Review Online on February 11, 2004. ^ "Education". 2007 . Retrieved 14 September 2007 . ^ Stossel, John (10 December 2007). "Ron Paul Unplugged". ABC News . Retrieved 30 January 2008 . ^ "Paige Fields Team to Leave No Child Behind". United States Department of Education. 11 April 2002. Archived from the original on 24 September 2003. ^ Young, Michelle D.; Winn, Kathleen M.; Reedy, Marcy A. (13 October 2017). "The Every Student Succeeds Act: Strengthening the Focus on Educational Leadership". Educational Administration Quarterly. 53 (5): 705''726. doi:10.1177/0013161x17735871. ISSN 0013-161X. ^ "President Bush Signs H.R. 584, Designates U.S. Department of Education as the Lyndon Baines Johnson Federal Building". Georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov. 23 March 2007 . Retrieved 25 August 2012 . Further reading [ edit ] Radin, Beryl A., and Willis D. Hawley (1988). Politics of Federal Reorganization: Creating the U.S. Department of Education, ISBN 978-0080339771Heffernan, Robert V. (2001). Cabinetmakers: Story of the Three-Year Battle to Establish the U.S. Department of Education, ISBN 978-0595158706External links [ edit ] Official website Department of Education in the Federal RegisterERIC Digests '' Informational digests on educational topics produced by the U.S. Department of Education before 1983.Works by United States Department of Education at Project GutenbergWorks by or about United States Department of Education at Internet ArchiveUnited States Government Manual, Department of Education

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