• Moe Factz with Adam Curry for October 13th 2021, Episode number 68

• "Lizard Lounge"

• Description
  • Adam and Moe walk down the CRT path of hot coals

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• Big Baller
  • Jimmy James from the south central flatlands

• Executive Producers:
  • Jimmy James (from the south central flatlands)
  • John Taylor
  • Terrell Arts DC
  • Lennard Bergsma

• Associate Executive Producers:
  • Simple Story Media
  • Kevin Risinger
  • Michael Kemmerer
  • Chris Bailey
  • Els Spek
  • Malcolm Riley

• Episode 68 Club Members
  • John Taylor
  • Michael Kemmerer
  • Chris Bailey
  • Els Spek

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• ShowNotes
  • What is a group of lizards called?
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    • Wed, 13 Oct 2021 04:35
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    • The collective noun for lizards is the word you would use to describe a group of lizards.We have identified the following word(s) that you could call a group of lizards:
    • lounge
    • Used in a sentence, you could say "Look at the lounge of lizards", where "lounge" is the collective noun that means group.As you can see, you simply substitute the word "group" with one of the collective nouns on our list above when describing a group of lizards.
  • Amos T. Akerman - Wikipedia
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    • Wed, 13 Oct 2021 04:11
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    • American politician (1821''1880)
    • Amos Tappan Akerman (February 23, 1821 '' December 21, 1880) was an American politician who served as United States Attorney General under President Ulysses S. Grant from 1870 to 1871. A native of New Hampshire, Akerman graduated from Dartmouth College in 1842 and moved South, where he spent most of his career. He first worked as headmaster of a school in North Carolina and as a tutor in Georgia. Having become interested in law, Akerman studied and passed the bar in Georgia in 1850; where he and an associate set up a law practice. He also owned a farm and eleven slaves. When the Civil War started in 1861, Akerman joined the Confederate Army, where he achieved the rank of colonel.
    • After the Civil War ended in 1865, Akerman joined the Republican Party during Reconstruction. He became an outspoken attorney advocate for freedmen's civil rights in Georgia. Akerman was appointed by President Ulysses S. Grant as his U.S. Attorney General; with Grant's support, he vigorously prosecuted the Klan in the South under the Enforcement Acts. Akerman was assisted by Solicitor General Benjamin Bristow in the newly established Department of Justice. Attorney General Akerman also prosecuted important land grant cases that concerned railroads in a rapidly expanding West. Akerman advised on the United States first federal Civil Service Reform law implemented by President Grant and the U.S. Congress. Possibly due to Akerman's rulings against the Union Pacific Railroad, Grant asked for Akerman's resignation from the cabinet. Although Akerman left office at Grant's request, he continued to support Grant. He returned to Georgia, practiced law, and remained highly popular in the state.
    • Early years [ edit ] Akerman was born on February 23, 1821, in Portsmouth, New Hampshire, as the ninth of twelve children of Benjamin Akerman and his wife.[1] He attended Phillips Exeter Academy prep school, and Dartmouth College, located in Hanover, where he graduated in the class of 1842 with Phi Beta Kappa honors.[1]
    • Headmaster, farmer, and law practice [ edit ] Upon graduation, Akerman moved South where the climate was thought better for his lung condition. He quickly got a job as a headmaster/instructor of a boy's academy in Murfreesboro, North Carolina, at that time part of Richmond county.[1] Akerman was known as a strict teacher. In 1846, he was hired by planter John Macpherson Berrien as a tutor for his children in Savannah, Georgia.[1] Berrien had been President Andrew Jackson's Attorney General and was a prominent Whig.[2] Akerman took advantage of Berrien's extensive law library and became fascinated with the field.[1] Akerman passed the Georgia Bar in 1850, and moved to Peoria, Illinois, where his sister resided, and briefly practiced law.[2] Akerman returned to Georgia and practiced law in Clarksville.[1][2]
    • Akerman returned to Georgia, where he opened a law practice in Elberton, with Robert Heston.[1] In addition to practicing law, Akerman also started a farm and owned eleven slaves.[2] In terms of politics Akerman was a Whig.[2]
    • Civil War [ edit ] Although he was against secession as a solution to the North''South conflicts, Akerman was loyal to his adopted state. At age 43, he joined the Confederate States Army in the spring of 1864.[3] Akerman first served in General Robert Toombs' brigade and later in the quartermaster's department where it was his job to procure and dispense uniforms, weapons and other supplies to the soldiers. Akerman was put into active service against the Union during Sherman's 1864 march through Georgia.[4]
    • Reconstruction [ edit ] Akerman joined the Republican Party in the campaign for freedmen's citizenship and suffrage. He was an outspoken proponent of Reconstruction as a member of Georgia's 1868 state constitutional convention and when appointed as U.S. district attorney for Georgia (1869). His appointment was blocked for some time by Congress, since he had served in the Confederate army. Akerman served for a total period of six months in this position.[4] Akerman also strongly advocated Georgia's readmission into the Union and struggled to gain stability and federal compliance in the state.
    • United States Presidential election 1868 [ edit ] During the 1868 Presidential campaign, there was concern that Akerman supported presidential candidate Horatio Seymour over Grant.[5] To stop the rumor, in a letter from Elberton, Akerman published his full endorsement for Ulysses S. Grant. He served as the Republican presidential state elector from Georgia.[5] Akerman believed Grant would restore order and peace to the violence-plagued South.[5] Akerman believed Grant would respect the "rights of the laborer as a freeman, citizen and voter".[5] Akerman wrote that violence in the South against blacks was motivated by revenge after the white Southerners had been defeated by the North, lost substantial property in the emancipation of slaves, had their society disrupted, and were temporarily disenfranchised.[5] Akerman believed that Congressional Reconstruction had been the better plan for the Southern states, opposed to President Andrew Johnson's plan.[5] He believed that freedmen deserved federal protection from the law and he endorsed the enfranchisement of their men.[5] Akerman admitted he was initially strongly opposed to blacks voting; however, his opinion changed as he came to believe that this was the only way that blacks could gain political power and protection.[5]
    • United States Attorney Georgia 1869 [ edit ] In 1869 President Grant appointed Akerman as U.S. Attorney in Georgia. President Grant, initially, attempted to protect African American voters against white violence and discrimination by the use of State courts.
    • White vs. Clement [ edit ] In June 1869, Akerman argued in defense of Richard W. White, a mulatto who had won the state election for Superior Court county clerk.[6] White's opponent, William James Clement, represented by Solicitor General Alfred B. Smith of the Eastern Georgia Circuit court, said that White was ineligible to hold office since he was a black man.[6] A lower court had ruled that if the Clement could prove that White was a black man, he could not hold office.[7] The case went to the Georgia's Supreme Court where Akerman defended White's election and said his color did not deny him the right to hold office.[7] Akerman argued that the former laws, based in the South's slave society, did not apply anymore. The Reconstruction Act of 1867 stated that Georgia had no current civilian government.[8] Akerman argued that since blacks had been granted the franchise throughout the United States, they had the right to hold public office.[8] He argued that blacks had participated in the Georgia's new constitutional government in 1868 without distinction of color.[8] He also noted that both President Andrew Johnson and Ulysses S. Grant had appointed black men to public office and that the current U.S. Constitution did not recognize or discriminate on the basis of a person's color.[8] The Supreme Court reversed the lower court's decision, ruling that White had the right to hold public office regardless of his race.[7]
    • United States Attorney General [ edit ] On June 17, 1870, Grant selected Akerman as United States Attorney General.[3][9] Akerman was the "only person from the Confederacy to reach cabinet rank during Reconstruction". Having become attorney general shortly after the creation of the new Justice Department, Akerman dealt with legal issues from the Department of the Interior, such as the question of whether competing railroad companies deserved more land in the West in return for expanding the country's transportation system. He also dealt with the Cr(C)dit Mobilier of America scandal. He led enforcement efforts to suppress the Ku Klux Klan (KKK) in the South through litigation. He had experienced its violence first-hand. He oversaw prosecution of more than 1100 cases against KKK members, gaining convictions.
    • Akerman did not create the Department of Justice, but he helped play a pivotal role in its development. He helped to appoint members and set standards, but due to the geographical constraints, past laws, and financial restrictions he struggled to properly build a strong Department of Justice.[10]
    • Akerman resigned on December 13, 1871,[3].
    • Ruled against Union Pacific [ edit ] On July 1, 1862, President Lincoln signed into law the Pacific Railroad Act that in addition to promoting the transcontinental railroad allowed the Union Pacific Railroad to make subsidiary railroad branch lines, including one through Kansas.[11] One of these subsidiaries was financially unable to complete the railroad through Kansas, as a result, the Union Pacific applied for federal assistance in the form of land grants and bonds.[11] On June 1, 1871, Attorney General Akerman denied land grants and bonds to the Union Pacific and upheld previous rulings against federal assistance.[11] Company attorneys lobbied Akerman to change his mind, however, he refused to change his ruling. This upset Collis P. Huntington and Jay Gould, who were connected to the Union Pacific Railroad and demanded Akerman's removal from office.[12]
    • Ruled on Civil Service Law [ edit ] On September 7, 1871, Att. Gen. Akerman ruled on the newly formed Civil Service Commission passed by Congress on March 3, 1871, and signed into law by President Grant on March 4.[13] In the United States first ever Civil Service Reform legislation a commission was set up to establish rules, testing, and regulations, authorized by the President, for the best possible candidates to be appointed civil service positions.[13] The funding for the Commission only lasted for one year until June 30, 1872.[13] Akerman ruled that the commission, run by a chairman appointed by the President, was legal, since Congress and the President had every right in their constitutional power to put in the best candidates to serve in the United States Government.[13] Akerman believed this was the original intent of the framers of the U.S. Constitution.[13] Akerman, however, ruled that the Commission did not constitutionally have the power to forbid an appointment; only to aid the President and Congress to put in the best person qualified for the job.[13] Akerman also ruled that the competitive testing need not be overly restrictive as to take away the appointment powers given to the President and Congress under the U.S. Constitution.[13]
    • Prosecuted Klan [ edit ] Ku Klux Klan members were prosecuted for violent attacks by U.S. Att. Gen. Amos T. Akerman. This shows three
    • Mississippi Klan members arrested in September 1871.
    • Having lived in Georgia, Att. Gen. Akerman was well aware of the widespread violent tactics, known as "outrages" of the Ku Klux Klan, conducted primarily against African American voters, who had mostly registered as Republicans.[14] The Freedman's Bureau in the Deep South were sent hundreds of complaints by blacks who had been persecuted and attacked by whites. One United States attorney of later years characterized this Klan activity as "the worst outbreak of domestic violence in American history to date."[15][16] Upon his assumption to office, Akerman's primary duty was to stop the violence against blacks in the South and prosecute the perpetrators.[14] His appointment by Grant in November 1870 was well timed, as he gained the strong enforcement powers of the newly created U.S. Department of Justice and the assistance of the newly created office of the U.S. Solicitor General.[14] Having the Department of Justice and the first Solicitor General, Benjamin Bristow, Attorney General Akerman was ready to federally prosecute the Klan.[14][17] Akerman, expanding the powers of the Department of Justice, started an investigating division that looked into the organization of the Klan in the South.[1] Congress passed the Ku Klux Klan Act, and it was signed into law by President Grant on April 20, 1871.[14]
    • Akerman and Bristow acted quickly and efficiently.[17] After Grant had suspended habeas corpus in nine South Carolina counties on October 17, 1871, Akerman, who had traveled to the state, personally led U.S. Marshals and the U.S. Army into the countryside and made hundreds of arrests, while 2000 Klansmen fled the state.[14][17] With the assistance of Bristow, the Department of Justice indicted 3,000 Klansmen throughout the South, and gained convictions of 600.[17] Sixty-five of the Klansmen convicted were sentenced to federal prison for five years.[17] As a result of the government's enforcement of the law against the Klan, its incidents of violence declined markedly. In 1872, African Americans voted in high numbers, electing numerous Republicans to state and local offices.[17] White conservative Democrats continued to contest the elections, and there was violence related to a disputed gubernatorial election in Louisiana.[citation needed ]
    • Resignation controversy [ edit ] During December, while Akerman was busy prosecuting the Klan, he was unexpectedly asked to resign by President Grant.[12][18] Rumor was that Grant was pressured by Secretary of Interior Columbus Delano, who sympathized with railroad tycoons Collis P. Huntington and Jay Gould, and had demanded Akerman's resignation.[18] Akerman had ruled against the government's giving federal land grants and government bonds to the Union Pacific Railroad.[18] Akerman denied that Delano was the reason for his departure from office.[18]
    • William S. McFeely, author of a critical biography of Grant, wrote that Grant was uneasy concerning Akerman's prosecution zeal against the Klan and did not want to appear as a military dictator grinding the South into submission.[19] According to McFeely, with Akerman's resignation "went any hope that the Republican party would develop as a national party of true racial equality".[18] However, historian Eric Foner noted that Akerman's replacement, George H. Williams, continued to prosecute the Klan in the South.[12] After Akerman resigned, he did not have any hard feelings towards President Grant.[18] Akerman supported Grant's renomination in 1872 and believed that the president would continue to enforce anti-terrorist laws.[20]
    • Return to Georgia and death [ edit ] Although he was offered another government job, he returned to Georgia, where he continued to practice law until his death in Cartersville, on December 21, 1880. He was interred at Oak Hill Cemetery in the city.
    • Family [ edit ] Days before he entered active Confederate Army service in 1864 during the Civil War, Akerman married Martha Rebecca Galloway. The couple had eight children; one child died before adulthood.[1] Their son Alexander Akerman achieved notability.[1]
    • Honors and historical recognition [ edit ] Cartersville's Oak Hill Akerman monument [ edit ] An Akerman monument was placed at Akerman's gravesite in Cartersville's Oak Hill Cemetery.[21][22]
    • Akerman monument text [ edit ] In Thought Clear And Strong,
    • In Purpose Pure And Elevated,
    • In Moral Courage Invincible,
    • He Lived Loyal To His Convictions
    • Avouring Them With Candor,
    • And Supporting Them With Firmness.
    • A Friend Of Humanity,
    • In His Zeal To Serve Others,
    • He Shrank From No Peril To Himself,
    • He Was Able, Faithful, True!
    • These are very intriguing words left by a loving family.
    • [21]
    • Cartersville marker (2019) [ edit ] In 2019, a new historical marker recognizing Amos T. Akerman was dedicated in Cartersville, Georgia. The marker was erected by the Georgia Historical Society, in conjunction with the Waters Foundation, Inc., and the Bartow History Museum.
    • On March 28, 2019, the Georgia Historical Society erected a historical marker about Akerman[23] in Cartersville at the site of his former home.[24] The marker commemorated his career as both teacher and attorney, including his prosecution of the Ku Klux Klan during Reconstruction.
    • Marker text [ edit ] Amos Tappan Akerman, born in Portsmouth, New Hampshire, graduated from Dartmouth College and moved south. While Tutoring the children of U.S. Senator and former U.S. Attorney General John Macpherson Berrien in Savannah, Akerman studied law and became an attorney, first in Clarkesville and then Elberton. Akerman supported the Confederacy during the Civil War but joined the Republican Party afterwards, staunchly defending African Americans' political rights. President Ulysses S. Grant appointed Akerman federal district attorney for Georgia in 1869 and then U.S. Attorney General in 1870. Akerman began the newly created Justice Department's first investigative unit, a precursor to the F.B.I.. He aggressively prosecuted the Ku Klux Klan for political terrorism and violence against African Americans before his forced resignation in 1871. Akerman, whose home was at this location, is buried in Cartersville's Oak Hill Cemetery.
    • [23]
    • References [ edit ] ^ a b c d e f g h i j Parker (9/12/2002), Amos T. Akerman (1821''1880), viewed on 1-15-2015 ^ a b c d e Brown (1997), Amos T. Akerman 1821''1880 ^ a b c Johnson 1906, p. 66 ^ a b Richard Zuczek (2006). Encyclopedia of the Reconstruction . Greenwood Milestones in African American History. Greenwood. p. 28. ISBN 978-0313330735. ^ a b c d e f g h "Able Letter from Honorable Amos T. Akerman of Georgia". The New York Times. September 12, 1868. p. 1 . Retrieved January 15, 2015 . ^ a b Davis (June 1869), Can a Negro hold office in Georgia?, pp. 4''7. ^ a b c Davis (June 1869),Can a Negro hold office in Georgia?, pp. 103''112. ^ a b c d Davis (June 1869), Can a Negro hold office in Georgia?, pp. 65''79. ^ New York Times, June 17, 1870 ^ Jed Handelsman Shugerman. "The Creation of the Department of Justice: Professionalization Without Civil Rights or Civil Service." Stanford Law Review 66, no. 1 (2014): 121-72. ^ a b c John Y. Simon (1998). Papers of Ulysses S. Grant. Papers of Ulysses S. Grant. 22. Southern Illinois University Press. p. 188. ISBN 978-0809321988. ^ a b c Eric Foner (1988). Reconstruction: America's unfinished revolution, 1863''1877 . HarperCollins. p. 458. ISBN 978-0060158514. ^ a b c d e f g "The Civil Service; Opinion of Attorney-General Akerman on the Civil Service Commission". The New York Times. September 8, 1871. p. 5 . Retrieved January 15, 2015 . ^ a b c d e f McFeely (1981), pp. 367''373. ^ Shappert, Gretchen C. F., "Fighting Domestic Terrorism and Creating the Department of Justice: The Extraordinary Leadership of Attorney General Amos T. Akerman." DOJ Journal of Federal Law and Practice, January 2020 ^ https://www.justice.gov/usao/page/file/1243216/download/ ^ a b c d e f Smith (2001), pp. 544''547 ^ a b c d e f McFeely (1981), pp. 373''374 ^ McFeely (1981), pp. 369''370, 373. ^ McFeely (1981), p. 369. ^ a b Cooper, Scott. "AMOS T. AKERMAN '' Etowah Valley Historical Society". ^ "Amos Tappan Akerman '' United States Attorney General '' Etowah Valley Historical Society". ^ a b "Amos T. Akerman (1821-1880)". ^ Re-discovering Amos Akerman, a lost GOP hero of the 19th century South. The Atlanta Journal-Constitution. March 29, 2019. Sources [ edit ] Dept. of Justice, Biography: Amos T. Akerman, Government Printing OfficeWilliam S. McFeely, Grant: A Biography (1997) ISBN 978-0945707158William S. McFeely, "Amos T. Akerman: The Lawyer and Racial Justice", in Region, Race, and Reconstruction: Essays in Honor of C. Vann Woodward, ed. J. Morgan Kousser and James M. McPherson (1982) ISBN 978-0195030754Jean Edward Smith, Grant, 2001, New York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0-684-84927-5Trelease, Allen W. "Akerman, Amos Tappan" in American National Biography Online Feb. 2000.Trelease, Allen W. White Terror: The Ku Klux Klan Conspiracy and Southern Reconstruction (1971) ISBN 978-0061317316Attribution:
    • This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Johnson, Rossiter, ed. (1906). "Akerman, Amos Tappan". The Biographical Dictionary of America. 1. Boston: American Biographical Society. p. 66.
  • Kristen Clarke - Wikipedia
    • Link to Article
    • Archived Version
    • Wed, 13 Oct 2021 04:09
    •  
    • American lawyer
    • Kristen M. Clarke (born 1975)[1] is an American attorney who has served as the Assistant Attorney General for the Civil Rights Division at the United States Department of Justice since 2021. Clarke Previously served as president of the Lawyers' Committee for Civil Rights Under Law. She also managed the Civil Rights Bureau of the New York State Attorney General's Office under Eric Schneiderman. In 2019, Clarke successfully represented Taylor Dumpson, the first Black American woman student body president of American University, in her landmark case against white supremacists.[2]
    • President Joe Biden in 2021 selected Clarke as his choice to head the U.S. Department of Justice Civil Rights Division.[3] The U.S. Senate confirmed her nomination on May 25, 2021, by a vote of 51''48.[4] Clarke made history as the first woman to be confirmed to lead the Civil Rights Division[5] after she was sworn in the same day.[6]
    • Early life and education [ edit ] Clarke's parents immigrated to Brooklyn from Jamaica.[7] She has said that she "grew up in a household that was about discipline, working hard in school and about making the most of every opportunity".[7] Clarke was a member of Prep for Prep, a non-profit organization that looks to support students of color in accessing private school education.[8][9]
    • She attended Choate Rosemary Hall, where she was the only girl to join the boy's wrestling squad.[10] She was presented with the 2017 Choate Alumni Award at a school-wide meeting in May 2017.[11] At the awards presentation she asked students to envision and work towards "a world with more justice, greater equity, and equal access."[12]
    • Clarke earned her Bachelor of Arts degree from Harvard University, where she was involved with initiatives to support and champion African-American students, including being president of the Black Student's Association.[13] While presiding over the BSA in 1994 she invited Tony Martin to speak.[14]
    • Clarke graduated from Harvard in 1997,[15] then earned a Juris Doctor from Columbia Law School in 2000.[16][17]
    • Career [ edit ] After graduating she worked as a trial attorney in the United States Department of Justice Civil Rights Division. In this capacity, she served as a federal prosecutor and worked on voting rights, hate crimes and human trafficking cases.[8][18]
    • In 2006, Clarke joined the NAACP Legal Defense Fund, where she co-led the political participation group and focused on voting rights and election law reform.[19] In 2011, Clarke was appointed Director of the Civil Rights Bureau of then Attorney General of New York, Eric Schneiderman, where she led initiatives on criminal justice issues and housing discrimination. Under her initiative, the bureau reached agreements with retailers on racial profiling of their customers, police departments on policy reform and with school districts on the school-to-prison pipeline.[20][21]
    • In 2015, Clarke was appointed president and Executive Director of the Lawyers' Committee for Civil Rights Under Law.[18][20] One of her first roles was leading Election Protection, a voter protection coalition.[7] She became well known for her work combating the discrimination faced by marginalized communities.[18] She is also known as one of the country's foremost lawyers and advocates on voting rights.[22]
    • In 2019, Clarke represented Taylor Dumpson, the first African-American woman student body president of American University, in her lawsuit against avowed neo-Nazi Andrew Anglin, who initiated a racist "troll storm" against her making her fear for her life and disrupting her ability to pursue her education.[23][24] Clarke successfully fought for the United States District Court for the District of Columbia to recognize that hateful online trolling can interfere with access to public accommodation, as well as securing damages and a restraining order.[23]
    • In early 2020, Clarke said that she was "deeply concerned that African American communities are being hardest hit by the COVID-19 pandemic, and that racial bias may be impacting the access they receive to testing and healthcare."[25] In the aftermath of the Killing of George Floyd, Clarke described the pandemic, record rates of unemployment and racial injustice caused by police brutality as a "perfect storm" for social unrest in the United States.[26]
    • Clarke has appeared as a legal commentator on Here and Now, A.M. Joy, PoliticsNation with Al Sharpton, Sky News Tonight, and Democracy Now![27]
    • Voting Rights [ edit ] Kristen Clarke handled the legal argument in district court in Shelby County Alabama v. Holder. In 2020, she testified before Congress about barriers to the vote.[28] She has advocated for passage of the John Lewis Voting Rights Advancement Act. She has participated in the annual bridge crossing in Selma, Alabama to commemorate Bloody Sunday.[29] She sued the United States Postal Service during the pandemic because of delays with ballots.[30] After John Lewis died, she called for honoring his life by passage of a bill to restore the Voting Rights Act.[31] Clarke honored John Lewis in 2017 with an award named after John F. Kennedy.[32] She appears with Stacey Abrams in the 2020 documentary All In: The Fight for Democracy. In November 2020 Lebron James thanked her for supporting the work of his organization More Than a Vote.
    • LGBTQ Rights [ edit ] Her work also concerns LGBTQ equality. In 2015, she opened an investigation into the Boy Scouts to look at the national group's ban on openly gay adults and alleged hiring rejections based on sexual orientation in New York.[33] The investigation was about "ensuring equal protection under the law for all New Yorkers, including lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender individuals who live and work in New York."[34] In July 2015 her office secured an agreement with the Boy Scouts of America to end their policy of excluding openly gay adults from serving as leaders in the organization.[35] The terms of the agreement applied nationally. In an editorial with Chad Griffin she called for policymakers and the public to treat the recent wave of hate-motivated violence toward trans women of color as a national crisis.[36]
    • Disability Rights [ edit ] She has worked to ensuring equal access for people with disabilities under the Americans with Disabilities Act. She secured agreements with bus companies,[37] major retailers,[38] movie theatres, theatre clubs,[39] and polling sites.[40]
    • Religious Rights Work [ edit ] Clarke secured settlements on religious rights. These agreements helped employees at NYC Health And Hospitals Corporation, the largest municipal healthcare organization in the country,[41] by ensuring that employees' religious accommodations requests comply with state and local law and Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964.[42] She secured similar agreements with Milrose Consulting.[43]
    • Immigration [ edit ] She supported a legal effort behind Cesar Vargas who became the first undocumented person to carry a law license in New York.[44] She successfully sued the Trump administration when they tried to revoke Deferred Enforced Departure for Liberian Americans.[45]
    • Hurricane Katrina [ edit ] In 2005, she co-edited Seeking Higher Ground: The Hurricane Katrina Crisis, Race, and Public Policy Reader with Manning Marable. The book examines the racial impact of the disaster and the failure of governmental, corporate and private agencies to respond to the plight of the New Orleans black community.[46]
    • Online Hate Speech [ edit ] She works to fight the spread of hate online. Clarke said: "Online hate must be confronted if we are going to make meaningful progress in the fight against hate, so this is a really significant victory."[47] This involved getting Facebook to extend its ban on hate speech to prohibit the promotion and support of white nationalism and white separatism.[48] Her advocacy led to a temporary shutdown of Stormfront,[49] a white supremacist website.[50] Stormfront is known as the oldest white supremacist site.[51] At a Congressional hearing, she noted white nationalism was about "real issues that are truly a life-and-death matter for far too many."[52]
    • Hate Crimes [ edit ] Kristen Clarke sued the Proud Boys after they attacked the Metropolitan AME Church and other churches in Washington, D.C.[53] A Black Lives Matter banner was stolen from the church and burned during a pro-Trump march on December 12, 2020.[54] After the suit was filed, she said: "Black churches and other religious institutions have a long and ugly history of being targeted by white supremacists in racist and violent attacks meant to intimidate and create fear. Our lawsuit aims to hold those who engage in such action accountable."[55] She leads[when? ] the James Byrd Jr. Center to Stop Hate at the Lawyers' Committee for Civil Rights Under Law. Together with Spencer Freedman, she supervised the Religious Rights Unit at the New York State Attorney General's Office.[56] She exposed a member of the Proud Boys inside the East Hampton Police Department in Connecticut.[57] She has fought for passage of the federal Anti-Lynching Prevention Law.[58] As a keynote speaker for Georgetown University's Center for Jewish Civilization, she said: "White nationalism should be of profound concern to all Americans because it affects all communities and tears at the fabric of our nation."
    • The Private Bar [ edit ] She leads a Board of over 200 lawyers that includes major law firms across the country. She also works with private lawyers who provide pro bono support for cases. Election Protection is an example.
    • Assistant Attorney for Civil Rights Division of the Department of Justice [ edit ] On January 7, 2021, President-elect Joe Biden chose Clarke to head the U.S. Department of Justice Civil Rights Division. Clarke said in response, "If I am fortunate enough to be confirmed, we will turn the page on hate and close the door on discrimination by enforcing our federal civil rights laws."[3]
    • Clarke's nomination is supported by numerous organizations including law enforcement organizations,[59] Jewish organizations such as the Anti-Defamation League,[60] Justice Department alumni from Republican and Democratic administrations,[61] Republican officials,[62] dozens of managing partners of corporate law firms,[63] General Counsels of Fortune 500 corporations,[64] hate crime survivors,[65] and others.[66] She also has support from public figures such as Michael Bloomberg,[67] Lilly Ledbetter[68] and Michael Chertoff.[69]
    • Four days later, Tucker Carlson and Fox News revealed a letter Clarke wrote to The Harvard Crimson as an undergraduate claiming that Blacks had "superior physical and mental abilities" due to their higher levels of melanin.[70][71] Clarke claimed that the article was supposed to be a satirical statement about "fighting one ridiculous absurd racist theory with another ridiculous absurd theory."[72] A fact-check by Newsweek quoted her article as saying it was "in response to those who defend The Bell Curve," however the fact-check concluded the article didn't state that it was not serious.[73] Former presidents of Harvard's Black Students Association defended Clarke for considering Melanin theory worthy of inquiry.[74][75]
    • The Jewish News Syndicate also noted Clarke's role as leader of Harvard's Black Student Association in 1994 in inviting antisemitic conspiracy theorist professor Tony Martin as a guest speaker on campus.[76] Clarke characterized Martin as "an intelligent, well-versed black intellectual who bases his information of indisputable fact."[76] On January 14, 2021, Clarke apologized for inviting Martin, saying, "Giving someone like him a platform, it's not something I would do again."[77]
    • During his confirmation hearing, Attorney General Merrick Garland stated that Clarke's skills and experiences would help the Department of Justice combat discrimination "in areas from housing to education to employment" and "ensure accountability for law enforcement misconduct."[22] During her confirmation hearing before the Senate Judiciary Committee, Clarke was criticized by Senators Ted Cruz and John Cornyn for her alleged writings in support of "Defunding the Police."[78] Clarke responded by stating that she endorses attempts to increase police funding, but also wishes to see "more money for social services".[79]
    • Clarke's nomination was stalled in the Senate Judiciary Committee by a vote of 11-11 after every GOP Senator on the committee voted against her nomination. On May 18, 2021, the Senate voted 50''48 to discharge her nomination from committee.[80] She was then confirmed on May 25, 2021, by a vote of 51''48.[81]
    • On June 25, 2021, it was reported that Clarke will be joining Vanita Gupta in suing the State of Georgia over the Election Integrity Act of 2021 that the state passed into law.[82]
    • Awards and honors [ edit ] 2010 Columbia Law School Paul Robeson Distinguished Alumni Award[16]2010 National Black Law Students Association Alumni of the Year[16]2011 National Bar Association Top 40 Under 40[83]2012 National Association of Attorneys General Best Brief Award[84]2015 New York Law Journal Rising Stars[85]2017 Choate Rosemary Hall Alumni Award[10]2017 Quinnipiac University School of Law Thurgood Marshall Award[86]2018 Louis L. Redding Lifetime Achievement Award[87]2019 The Root Most Influential Americans[88]Selected publications [ edit ] Marable, Manning; Clarke, Kristen (2009). Barack Obama and African American empowerment : the rise of Black America's new leadership (1st ed.). New York: Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-230-10329-0. OCLC 608023888. Marable, Manning; Clarke, Kristen (2008). Seeking higher ground : the Hurricane Katrina crisis, race, and public policy reader. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-1-4039-8396-1. OCLC 129952587. Clarke, Kristen (2008). "Race-Ing the Post-Katrina Political Landscape: An Analysis of the 2006 New Orleans Election". Seeking Higher Ground. New York: Palgrave Macmillan US: 33''37. doi:10.1057/9780230610095_3. ISBN 978-1-4039-7779-3. References [ edit ] ^ "Daughter of J'can immigrants nominated for senior position at US Dept of Justice". Jamaica Observer. January 9, 2021 . Retrieved May 25, 2021 . ^ Sani, Christina Sturdivant (Mar 15, 2018). "An American University". Washington City Paper . Retrieved Apr 15, 2021 . ^ a b Rubin, Jennifer (January 8, 2021). "Joe Biden's nominees will put 'Justice' back in the Justice Department". The Washington Post . Retrieved January 12, 2021 . ^ "U.S. Senate Confirms Kristen Clarke as First Black Woman to Lead Justice Department's Civil Rights Division | May 25, 2021". The Daily NewsBrief. 2021-05-25 . Retrieved 2021-05-25 . ^ Johnson, Carrie (April 14, 2021) "Kristen Clarke's Civil Rights Record Led Her To Barrier-Breaking DOJ Nomination", NPR. Retrieved May 5, 2021. ^ "Kristen Clarke sworn in as first Black woman to lead DOJ's Civil Rights Division". news.yahoo.com. May 25, 2021 . Retrieved May 25, 2021 . ^ a b c Journal, A. B. A. "10 Questions: Kristen Clarke is a leader in 21st century fight for civil rights". ABA Journal . Retrieved 2020-07-20 . ^ a b "Kristen Clarke". www.law.upenn.edu . Retrieved 20 July 2020 . She is also an active alumna of Prep for Prep. ^ "Prep for Prep | Social Justice & Social Impact". www.prepforprep.org . Retrieved 2020-07-20 . ^ a b "2017 Alumni Award Presented to Kristen Clarke '93". www.choate.edu . Retrieved 20 July 2020 . Choate taught her to be bold and courageous in other realms as well -- she was the only girl to join the boys wrestling squad, an opportunity for an intense workout and to challenge gender stereotypes. ^ "2017 Alumni Award Presented to Kristen Clarke '93". www.choate.edu . Retrieved 2021-04-15 . ^ Kristen Clarke - Alumni Award 2017 , retrieved 2021-04-15 ^ Bishai, Graham W.; Murphy, Norah M. (12 October 2017). "A Social Blueprint: Harvard's Houses, From Randomization to Renewal". The Crimson. The Quad was "vibrant," and "one of the most racially diverse sections of campus," former president of the Black Student's Association Kristen M. Clarke '97 recalls. In 1996, only 11 percent of juniors and seniors at the college were black, while 25 percent of juniors and seniors living in Quad houses were black, according to a student-produced report. Clarke describes her time in Currier House as "a core part of my social experience on campus." These distinctive communities within the Houses were an "opportunity for students who were in search of that kind of support network and system on campus at that time," says Clarke. ^ Lebwohl, Martin (6 December 1994). "The BSA President's Actions Raise Unsettling Questions". The Crimson. Last week, Wellesley Professor Tony Martin spoke at Harvard at the invitation of the Black Students Association .. after the introduction, Martin lavished praise on Kristen M. Clarke '97, the BSA president, who, he said, had courageously invited him ^ "Alumni encourage students to pursue work in public service". Harvard Gazette. 2018-01-31 . Retrieved 2020-07-20 . Keynote speaker Kristen Clarke '97 encouraged Harvard students ^ a b c "Black Law Students Association Honors Maya Wiley '89 at Annual Paul Robeson Gala". law.columbia.edu. 7 April 2014. ^ "Biography: Kristen Clarke". law.howard.edu . Retrieved 8 January 2021 . ^ a b c "Kristen Clarke". Lawyers' Committee for Civil Rights Under Law . Retrieved 20 July 2020 . ^ "Kristen Clarke". Source of the Week. 2017-08-18 . Retrieved 2020-07-20 . ^ a b "Isaacson Miller Results Details". www.imsearch.com . Retrieved 2020-07-20 . ^ "Biography: Kristen Clarke | Howard University School of Law". www2.law.howard.edu . Retrieved 2020-07-20 . ^ a b Benner, Katie (14 April 2021). "Biden's Choice for Civil Rights Post Has Worked to Defend Voting Rights". The New York Times. ^ a b Augustin, Stanley (9 August 2019). "National Civil Rights Organization Wins Lawsuit Against Daily Stormer and White Supremacists Engaging in Online Threats and Harassment". Lawyers' Committee for Civil Rights Under Law . Retrieved 20 July 2020 . ^ "Intercom - Civil Rights Attorney Kristen Clarke to Speak on the Rise of Hate Crimes". www.ithaca.edu . Retrieved 2020-07-20 . ^ Cooney, Elizabeth (2020-04-07). "African Americans may be bearing the brunt of Covid-19, but data limited". STAT . Retrieved 2021-01-27 . ^ " ' A Perfect Storm': Kristen Clarke on the National Protests Ripping Across the Nation". NBC New York . Retrieved 2020-07-20 . ^ "Kristen Clarke". IMDb . Retrieved 2021-01-08 . ^ "Kristen Clarke Testimony for House Select Subcommittee on Coronavirus" (PDF) . Congress.gov. September 9, 2020. Archived (PDF) from the original on May 19, 2021. ^ Clarke, Kristen [@KristenClarkeJD] (July 18, 2020). "In March, a tireless John Lewis maneuvered through a shoulder to shoulder crowd on the bridge in Selma, Alabama and urged us all to keep fighting and keep soldiering forward. Let's heed his call and fight to end voter suppression and safeguard voting rights for all. #goodtrouble" (Tweet). Archived from the original on January 14, 2021 '' via Twitter. ^ "Lawyers". Arnold & Porter . Retrieved Apr 15, 2021 . ^ Clarke, Kristen (July 20, 2020). "Honor John Lewis with a Senate vote on the voting rights he fought for his whole life". USA Today. Archived from the original on May 19, 2021 . Retrieved May 19, 2021 . ^ Lawyers' Committee (Jun 8, 2017). "Honoring Congressman John Lewis And Getting Into #GoodTrouble". Medium . Retrieved Apr 15, 2021 . ^ "NY Attorney General Warns Boy Scouts on LGBT Hiring Discrimination". NBC New York . Retrieved 2021-04-15 . ^ "AG's Office Warns Boy Scouts of America that It Cannot Discriminate in N.Y." Non Profit News | Nonprofit Quarterly. 2015-04-23 . Retrieved 2021-04-15 . ^ "A.G. Schneiderman Announces Agreement with the Boy Scouts Of America to Allow Openly Gay Leaders | New York State Attorney General". ag.ny.gov . Retrieved 2021-04-15 . ^ Griffin, Chad; Clarke, Kristen (Feb 23, 2018). "Urgent action needed to end anti-LGBTQ violence | Opinion". The Philadelphia Inquirer . Retrieved 2021-04-15 . ^ "A.G. Schneiderman Secures Agreement With National Bus Company Ensuring Equal Access For People With Disabilities | New York State Attorney General". ag.ny.gov . Retrieved 2021-04-15 . ^ "A.G. Schneiderman Secures Agreements With Century 21, JCPenney, And Petland Discounts To Ensure Equal Access For People With Disabilities" (PDF) . June 14, 2013. ^ "AG Schneiderman Announces Agreements Requiring Three NYC Theatres To Provide Listening Devices To Individuals With Hearing Loss". LongIsland.com. May 6, 2014 . Retrieved 2021-04-17 . ^ "Schneiderman announces victories for disability rights on 23rd anniversary of Americans with Disabilities Act". Niagara Frontier Publications. Jul 26, 2013 . Retrieved 2021-04-17 . ^ "A.G. Schneiderman Announces Settlement Enhancing Religious Accommodations For Employees Of NYC Health And Hospitals Corporation | New York State Attorney General". ag.ny.gov. New York State Attorney General. July 6, 2012 . Retrieved 2021-04-17 . ^ "Settlement Protects Hhc Workers' Religious Rights '' QNS.com". qns.com. TimesLedger Newspapers. July 12, 2012 . Retrieved 2021-04-17 . ^ "A.G. Schneiderman Announces Settlement With Consulting Firm For Failing To Accommodate Religious Observance | New York State Attorney General". ag.ny.gov. New York State Attorney General. June 8, 2012 . Retrieved 2021-04-17 . ^ "In re Application of Vargas, 131 A.D.3d 4 | Casetext Search + Citator". Casetext. Jun 3, 2015 . Retrieved 2021-04-17 . ^ "Liberian Immigrants Sue President Trump". African Communities Together. 2019-03-08 . Retrieved 2021-04-17 . ^ Marable, M.; Clarke, Kristen, eds. (2008). Seeking Higher Ground: The Hurricane Katrina Crisis, Race, and Public Policy Reader. Critical Black Studies. Palgrave Macmillan US. doi:10.1057/9780230610095. ISBN 978-1-4039-8396-1. ^ "Facebook announces new policy to ban white nationalist content". BizJournals . Retrieved 2021-04-17 . ^ "Facebook extends ban on hate speech to 'white nationalists ' ". Spectrum News. Associated Press. March 27, 2019 . Retrieved 2021-04-17 . ^ "Oldest white supremacist site, stormfront.org, shut down". WKYC. August 28, 2017 . Retrieved Apr 15, 2021 . ^ "Oldest White Supremacist Site Shut Down After Complaint". Snopes. Associated Press. 28 August 2017 . Retrieved 2021-04-17 . ^ "Stormfront". Southern Poverty Law Center . Retrieved 2021-04-17 . ^ Smith, Jamil (Apr 10, 2019). "There Were Also Serious People at That Hearing on White Nationalism". Rolling Stone . Retrieved Apr 15, 2021 . ^ "Ahead of Pro-Trump Protest, Proud Boys Leader Arrested for Burning BLM Banner at Black Church". Democracy Now! . Retrieved Apr 15, 2021 . ^ Hermann, Peter (Dec 18, 2020). "Proud Boys leader says he burned Black Lives Matter banner stolen from church during demonstrations in D.C." Washington Post. ISSN 0190-8286 . Retrieved 2021-04-17 . ^ "Proud Boys leader released after arrest for burning BLM flag". BBC News. Jan 5, 2021 . Retrieved Apr 15, 2021 . ^ "A.G. Schneiderman Launches New Initiative To Protect Religious Rights | New York State Attorney General". ag.ny.gov . Retrieved Apr 15, 2021 . ^ "Police officer retires after far-right group ties revealed". AP NEWS. Nov 1, 2019 . Retrieved Apr 15, 2021 . ^ "Congress makes lynching a federal crime, 65 years after Emmett Till". NBC News . Retrieved Apr 15, 2021 . ^ "Police groups endorse Biden's pick for civil rights chief". 20 April 2021. ^ Greenblatt, Jonathan (February 19, 2021). "ADL Letter of Support DOJ Monaco Gupta Clarke" (PDF) . United States Senate Committee on the Judiciary. Archived (PDF) from the original on May 14, 2021 . Retrieved May 19, 2021 . I write on behalf of ADL (the Anti-Defamation League) to share our strong support for the confirmation of Lisa Monaco, Vanita Gupta, and Kristen Clarke to key leadership positions in the US Department of Justice (DOJ). ^ "DOJ Civil Rights Alums Back Kristen Clarke Ahead of Confirmation Battle". Birmingham Times. April 14, 2021. Archived from the original on May 8, 2021 . Retrieved May 19, 2021 . ^ "Bloomberg, former RNC chair Steele back Biden pick for civil rights division". 30 March 2021. ^ "Managing Partners Letter on Behalf of Kristen Clarke" (PDF) . United States Senate Committee on the Judiciary. April 7, 2021. Archived (PDF) from the original on May 14, 2021 . Retrieved May 19, 2021 . ^ "Over 30 General Counsels Support for Clarke" (PDF) . United States Senate Committee on the Judiciary. April 7, 2021. Archived (PDF) from the original on May 10, 2021 . Retrieved May 19, 2021 . ^ "Letter of support from individuals and families impacted by hate crimes" (PDF) . United States Senate Committee on the Judiciary. April 8, 2021. Archived (PDF) from the original on May 14, 2021 . Retrieved May 19, 2021 . ^ "Nomination Hearing". United States Senate Committee on the Judiciary. April 14, 2021. Archived from the original on May 14, 2021 . Retrieved May 19, 2021 . ^ Bloomberg, Michael (February 26, 2021). "Michael Bloomberg for Clarke" (PDF) . United States Senate Committee on the Judiciary. Archived (PDF) from the original on May 15, 2021 . Retrieved May 19, 2021 . I am writing to express my strong support for the historic nomination of Kristen Clarke to serve as Assistant Attorney General for Civil Rights at the U.S. Department of Justice. ^ Ledbetter, Lilly (April 1, 2021). "Lilly Ledbetter: The next step in securing equal justice for women". Fortune . Retrieved May 19, 2021 . ^ Chertoff, Michael (February 5, 2021). "Michael Chertoff letter of support for Kristen Clarke" (PDF) . United States Senate Committee on the Judiciary. Archived (PDF) from the original on May 14, 2021 . Retrieved May 19, 2021 . I am writing in support of Kristen Clarke, the President's nominee to become the Assistant Attorney General of the Civil Rights Division of the U.S. Department of Justice. ^ Rosenberg, David (January 12, 2021). "Biden nominates Black supremacist who endorsed anti-Semitic lecturer". Arutz Sheva . Retrieved January 13, 2021 . ^ The CRIMSON Staff (November 4, 1994). "Clarke Should Retract Statements". The Harvard Crimson . Retrieved January 13, 2021 . ^ Kornbluh, Jacob (January 13, 2021). "Biden's Deputy AG touts record on antisemitism amid criticism of her college activity". forward.com. ^ Marnin, Julia (14 January 2021). "Fact Check: Did Joe Biden's assistant AG pick write about Black vs. white genetics?". Newsweek . Retrieved 4 February 2021 . Despite Clarke's recent assertions that her 1994 co-authored article for The Harvard Crimson was meant to 'express an equally absurd point of view,' it is not stated in the article that her and Kennedy's claims on Black vs. white genetics were not serious at the time. ^ "Crimson Is No Friend of Black People - Opinion". The Harvard Crimson . Retrieved 2021-02-23 . Second, by listing five theories and observations that suggest that darker-skinned people may indeed benefit--other than cosmetically--from the presence of melanin, Clarke calls for a more open, comprehensive examination of race and intelligence ^ "Book Sparks Campus Debate". The Harvard Crimson. 28 October 1994 . Retrieved 4 February 2021 . ^ a b "Biden nominee for Justice Department invited anti-Semite to Harvard University". Jewish News Syndicate. January 12, 2021. ^ Kampeas, Ron (January 14, 2021). "Kristen Clarke, top Biden civil rights nominee, says she erred in inviting anti-Semitic author to speak while at Harvard". JTA. ^ Strohm, Chris (May 13, 2021). "Senate Panel Ties on Biden Pick for DOJ's Civil Rights Division". Bloomberg . Retrieved 2021-05-18 . ^ Nakamura, David. "Biden's pick for top civil rights post spars with Republicans over police funding". Washington Post. ISSN 0190-8286 . Retrieved 2021-05-18 . ^ "On the Motion to Discharge (Motion to Discharge the Nomination of Kristen M. Clarke to be an Assistant Attorney General from the Committee on the Judiciary)". www.senate.gov. May 18, 2021 . Retrieved May 25, 2021 . ^ "On the Nomination (Confirmation: Kristen M. Clarke, of the District of Columbia, to be an Assistant Attorney General)". www.senate.gov. May 25, 2021 . Retrieved May 25, 2021 . ^ Berman, Ari (June 25, 2021). "Justice Department Is Suing Georgia Over Voter Suppression Law". Mother Jones. ^ "National Bar Association "40 under 40 Best Advocates" sponsor brochure for 2016". Issuu . Retrieved 2020-07-20 . ^ "American Law Journal :: Kristen Clarke ~ Lawyers' Committee For Civil Rights". lawjournaltv.com . Retrieved 2020-07-20 . ^ "2015 NYLJ Rising Stars 061615". na.eventscloud.com . Retrieved 2020-07-20 . ^ "Kristen Clarke, Hamden's Marcus McCraven Receive Quinnipiac BLSA Awards". Hamden, CT Patch. 2017-02-28 . Retrieved 2020-07-20 . ^ "Louis L. Redding Gala". delawarebarristers . Retrieved 2020-07-20 . ^ "The Root 100 - The Most Influential African Americans In 2019". The Root . Retrieved 2020-07-20 . External links [ edit ] Appearances on C-SPAN
  • Birth certificate - Wikipedia
    • Link to Article
    • Archived Version
    • Wed, 13 Oct 2021 03:04
    •  
    • Official record of the birth of a child
    • A birth certificate is a vital record that documents the birth of a person. The term "birth certificate" can refer to either the original document certifying the circumstances of the birth or to a certified copy of or representation of the ensuing registration of that birth. Depending on the jurisdiction, a record of birth might or might not contain verification of the event by such as a midwife or doctor.
    • The United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 17, an integral part of the 2030 Agenda, has a target to increase the timely availability of data regarding age, gender, race, ethnicity, and other relevant characteristics which documents like a birth certificate has the capacity to provide.[1]
    • History and contemporary times [ edit ] A Soviet birth certificate from 1972.
    • The documentation of births is a practice widely held throughout human civilization. The original purpose of vital statistics was for tax purposes and for the determination of available military manpower. In England, births were initially registered with churches, who maintained registers of births. This practice continued into the 19th century.[2] The compulsory registration of births with the United Kingdom government is a practice that originated at least as far back as 1853.[3] The entire United States did not get a standardized system until 1902.[4]
    • Most countries have statutes and laws that regulate the registration of births. In all countries, it is the responsibility of the mother's physician, midwife, hospital administrator, or the parent(s) of the child to see that the birth is properly registered with the appropriate government agency.
    • The actual record of birth is stored with a government agency. That agency will issue certified copies or representations of the original birth record upon request, which can be used to apply for government benefits, such as passports. The certification is signed and/or sealed by the registrar or other custodian of birth records, who is commissioned by the government.
    • The right of every child to a name and nationality, and the responsibility of national governments to achieve this are contained in Articles 7 and 8 in the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child: "The child shall be registered immediately after birth and shall have the right from birth to a name, the right to acquire a nationality..." (CRC Article 7) and "States Parties undertake to respect the right of the child to preserve his or her identity, including nationality, name and family relations..." (CRC Article 8).[5]
    • ...it's a small paper but it actually establishes who you are and gives access to the rights and the privileges, and the obligations, of citizenship.
    • Despite 191 countries ratifying the Convention, the births of millions of children worldwide go unregistered. By their very nature, data concerning unregistered children are approximate. About 29% of countries don't have available or sufficient data to assess global progress towards the SDG goal of universal coverage.[7] However, from the data that is available, UNICEF estimates that more than a quarter of children under 5 worldwide are unregistered.[8] The lowest levels of birth registration are found in sub-Saharan Africa (43 percent). This phenomenon disproportionately impacts poor households and indigenous populations. Even in many developed countries, it contributes to difficulties in fully accessing civic rights.[9]
    • Birth registration opens the door to rights to children and adults which many other human beings take for granted: to prove their age; to prove their nationality; to receive healthcare; to go to school; to take exams; to be adopted; to protection from under-age military service or conscription; to marry; to open a bank account; to hold a driving licence; to obtain a passport; to inherit money or property; and to vote or stand for elected office.[10]
    • There are many reasons why births go unregistered, including social and cultural beliefs and attitudes; alternative documents and naming ceremonies; remote areas, poor infrastructure; economic barriers; lack of office staff, equipment and training; legal and political restrictions; fear of discrimination and persecution; war, conflict and unrest or simply the fact that there is no system in place.[10][11][12][13][14][15]
    • Retrospective registration may be necessary where there is a backlog of children whose births have gone unregistered. In Senegal, the government is facilitating retrospective registration through free local court hearings and the number of unregistered children has fallen considerably as a result.In Sierra Leone, the government gave the National Office of Births and Deaths special permission to issue birth certificates to children over seven. In Bolivia, there was a successful three-year amnesty for the free registration of young people aged between 12 and 18.[16]
    • Statelessness, or the lack of effective nationality, impacts the daily lives of some 11''12 million people around the world. Perhaps those who suffer most are stateless infants, children, and youth. Although born and raised in their parents' country of habitual residence, they lack formal recognition of their existence.[17]
    • Australia [ edit ] States and territories of Australia are responsible for the issuance of birth certificates, through agencies generally titled "Registry of Births Deaths and Marriages" or similar.[18]
    • Initially registering a birth is done by a hospital through a "Birth Registration Statement" or similar, signed by appropriately licensed and authorized health professionals, and provided to the state or territory registry. Home births are permitted, but a statement is required from a registered midwife, doctor or 2 other witnesses other than the parent(s). Unplanned births require in some states that the baby be taken to a hospital within 24 hours.[19] Once registered, a separate application (sometimes it can be done along with the Birth Registration Statement) can be made for a birth certificate, generally at a cost. The person(s) named or the parent(s) can apply for a certificate at any time.[20] Generally, there is no restriction on re-applying for a certificate at a later date, so it could be possible to legally hold multiple original copies.
    • The Federal government requires that births be also registered through a "Proof of Birth Declaration" similarly signed as above by a doctor or midwife. This ensures the appropriate benefits can be paid, and the child is enrolled for Medicare.[21]
    • The state or territory issued birth certificate is a secure A4 paper document, generally listing: Full name at birth, sex at birth, parent(s) and occupation(s), older sibling(s), address(es), date and place of birth, name of the registrar, date of registration, date of issue of certificate, a registration number, with the signature of the registrar and seal of the registry printed and or embossed. Most states allow for stillbirths to be issued a birth certificate. Some states issue early pregnancy loss certificates (without legal significance if before 20 weeks).[22] Depending on the state or territory, amendments on the certificate are allowed to correct an entry, add ascendant, recognize same-sex relationship,[23] changing the sex of the holder is possible in all states and territories.[24]
    • The full birth certificate in Australia is an officially recognized identity document generally in the highest category.[25] The birth certificate assists in establishing citizenship. Shorter and/or commemorative birth certificates are available; however, they are not generally acceptable for identification purposes.[26]
    • Birth certificates in Australia can be verified online by approved agencies through the Attorney-General's Department Document Verification Service[27] and can be used to validate identity digitally, e.g. online.
    • Canada [ edit ] A specimen Ontario short-form birth certificate.
    • In Canada, the issuance of birth certificates is a function of the provinces and territories. In 2008, provinces and territories started rolling out new polymer certificates to new applicants.[28][29]
    • Canadian birth certificates may be obtained from the following:
    • Alberta '' A registry agent authorised by the ProvinceBritish Columbia '' British Columbia Vital Statistics AgencyManitoba '' Manitoba Vital Statistics AgencyNew Brunswick '' Service New BrunswickNewfoundland and Labrador '' Service NLNorthwest Territories '' Health Services Administration OfficeNova Scotia '' Access Nova ScotiaNunavut '' Registrar-General of Vital StatisticsOntario '' ServiceOntarioPrince Edward Island '' Vital Statistics RegistryQuebec '' Director of Civil Status (Directeur de l'(C)tat civil)Saskatchewan '' eHealth SaskatchewanYukon '' Vital Statistics, Government of YukonA Quebec long-form birth certificate.
    • Types issued [ edit ] There are three forms of birth certificates issued:
    • Certified true copy/photostat '' contains all information available on the birth of a person.Long-form '' contains name, place and date of birth, parental information, date of issue, date of registration, registration number, certificate number, and authorised signature(s).Short-form '' as with long-form, except for parental information. Previously in card format.A short-form Northwest Territories certificate of birth (in card format), bearing the Inuktitut language.
    • Residents of Quebec born elsewhere can have their non-Quebec birth record inserted into Quebec's birth register. Quebec birth certificates issued with regard to a birth that occurred outside of Quebec are referred to as "semi-authentic" under paragraph 137 of the Civil Code of Qu(C)bec, until their full authenticity is recognised by a Quebec court.[30] Inserting one's birth record into the Quebec register is a prerequisite for anyone born outside of Quebec to apply for a legal name and/or legal gender change in the province. Semi-authentic birth certificates are issued in the long-form only.
    • A DND 419 birth certificate issued by the Canada Department of National Defence.
    • Languages [ edit ] Depending on the province, certificates are in English, French or both languages. Birth certificates from Canadian territories are in English and French, as well as Inuktitut in Nunavut (though individual data is in the Roman alphabet only, not in Inuktitut syllabics). The Northwest Territories previously issued certificates bearing Inuktitut.
    • DND 419 birth certificates [ edit ] In 1963, the Department of National Defence started issuing birth certificates to dependents of Canadian Forces members born overseas. These certificates were never accorded legal status, but served as a convenient substitute for the original record of birth from the country of birth. In November 1979, production of these certificates ceased.[31]
    • Today, the DND 419 is recognised as a proof of age, but not of citizenship.[32] At least two Canadians have had Canadian passports withheld on the basis of their DND 419 birth certificates.[33][34]
    • China [ edit ] A specimen Chinese medical certificate of birth.
    • The People's Republic of China issued its first medical birth certificate on 1 January 1996. Persons born prior to that date can obtain a birth certificate from a Chinese notary public by way of presenting their hukou and other supporting documents. The notary then proceeds to issue a notarial birth certificate based on the information contained in the said documentation. This notarial birth certificate is acceptable for immigration purposes.[35]
    • The fifth-generation medical birth certificate was adopted nationwide on 1 January 2014.[36] Still, China is amongst those countries with no globally comparable data, presenting challenges to researchers who wish to assess global and regional progress towards universal birth registration.[7]
    • Cuba [ edit ] A Cuban birth certificate.
    • In Cuba, birth certificates are issued by the local civil registries.
    • With the passage of Extraordinary Official Gazette Number 9 of 2020, issued by the Cuban Ministry of Justice, birth certificates (as with all other vital records, excepting certificates of single status) will no longer expire after a certain amount of time.[37]
    • Children born to Cuban citizens abroad may have the details of their birth transcribed in a Cuban civil registry through a Cuban overseas mission. This is known as a Birth Certificate Transcript.[38] Because of the considerable difficulty of obtaining Cuban vital records for individuals residing outside of Cuba - even where Cuban overseas missions have been delegated to provide these services - private services such as the Massachusetts-based Cuba City Hall offer retrieval services, wherein they apply for a certificate from a Cuban civil registry on behalf of an overseas individual. These services have been called overpriced.[39]
    • Czech Republic [ edit ] The Czech Republic maintains a registry of vital records, including births, of people, regardless of nationality, or birthplace. Every citizen of the Czech Republic will need to register their birth if born abroad, effectively granting a foreign born person two birth certificates. The Czech Republic will also register foreigners in some cases. The office that registers births is colloquially called 'matrika'.
    • Denmark [ edit ] In Denmark, the authority responsible for registering births is the Registrar of the Church of Denmark.[40]
    • There are three types of Danish birth certificates:
    • Personattest (Certificate of Personal Data): issued to persons born in (or baptised in) Denmark.Foedsels- og Daabsattest (Birth and Baptism Certificate): issued to persons born in Denmark and baptised in the Church of Denmark.Foedsels- og Navneattest (Birth and Naming Certificate): issued to persons born in Denmark but not baptised in the Church of Denmark.France [ edit ] Civil records in France have been compulsory since the 1539 ordinance of Villers-Cotterªts, in which the King Francis I ordered the parishes to record baptisms, marriages and sepultures. Then in 1667 the parishes were asked to issue two registers in two different places in order to avoid the loss of data. Jews and Protestants were allowed to have their own records by Louis XVI in 1787. In 1792, the registers were fully secularized (birth, civil marriage and death replaced baptism, religious marriage and sepulture, plus an official kept the records instead of a priest), and the Code civil did create the compulsory birth certificate in 1804 (in its articles 34, 38, 39 et 57).[41] This document should be completed at one's marriage since 1897, at one's divorce since 1939, at one's death since 1945 and at one's civil union since 2006. A note is added on the certificate for all these events.
    • Hong Kong [ edit ] In Hong Kong, the system is similar to England and Wales, wherein the government keeps a birth register book, and the birth certificate is actually a certified copy of the birth register book entry.[42]
    • Currently, the Immigration Department is the official birth registrar. All parents need to register their children's birth within 42 days.[43] Birth certificates issued between 1 July 1997 and 27 April 2008 recorded whether or not the child's Hong Kong permanent resident status was established at birth. Birth certificates issued after the latter date record which provision of the Immigration Ordinance the said status has been established under.[44]
    • India [ edit ] Traditionally births were poorly recorded in India.[45]
    • For official purposes, other proofs are accepted in India in lieu of the birth certificate, such as matriculation certificates.[46] Facilities are available to produce a birth certificate from a passport.[47]
    • By law since 1969, registration of births is compulsory as per provisions of Registration of Births & Deaths Act.[48] Birth certificates are issued by the Government of India or the municipality concerned. Specific rules vary by state, region and municipality.
    • In Delhi, for example, births must be registered within 21 days by the hospital or institution, or by a family member if the birth has taken place at home. After registration, a birth certificate can be obtained by applying to the relevant authority. Certificates can also be issued under special provisions to adopted children, and undocumented orphans. Overseas births can also be registered.[48]
    • Some municipalities, such as the Greater Chennai Corporation allow for fully digital birth certificates to be applied for, printed, and verified online.[49]
    • Indonesia [ edit ] The current legislation governing the registration of births is the 2006 Act No 23 on the Administration of Civil Status (UU No. 23 Tahun 2006 tentang Administrasi Kependudukan), as amended by 2013 Act No 24 on Amendments to 2006 Act No 23.[50][51][52]
    • An Indonesian consular birth certificate, issued in a jurisdiction that does not record non-citizen births.
    • An Indonesian birth certificate issued in 1996, using traditional authenticating signature and stamp
    • Births outside Indonesia [ edit ] Pursuant to Chapter 29 of the Act, Indonesian citizens born overseas must register their births with the local civil registrar using a foreign birth certificate upon returning to Indonesia, and receive a Report of Birth Abroad (Tanda Bukti Laporan Kelahiran).[53] If born in a jurisdiction which does not register the births of non-citizens, they will instead be issued a regular Birth Certificate by the local Indonesian overseas mission.[54]
    • An Indonesian birth certificate issued in 2019, using QR codes certified by Indonesian Electronic Certification Authority
    • Births within Indonesia [ edit ] Within Indonesia, local civil registrars are responsible for issuing birth certificates (akta kelahiran).
    • The following Staatsbladen (state gazettes), enacted by the Dutch colonial government, were supplanted by the Act:
    • 1849 Staatsblad 25 for persons of European descent1917 Staatsblad 130 for persons of Chinese descent1920 Staatsblad 751 for persons of Indigenous descent1923 Staatsblad 75 for persons of Indigenous descent professing the Christian faithPrior to 1986, persons not born in any of the above groups had to be registered through court order. This changed by a 1986 decree of the Minister of Home Affairs, resulting in a jolt in the number of births being registered. In 1989, a subsequent decree was effected by the Minister, allowing those born between 1986 and 1989 to have their births registered.[52]
    • There are several types of birth certificates issued to Indonesian-born individuals, per the Denpasar Civil Registry:[55]
    • General Birth Certificate (Akta Kelahiran Umum)Delayed Birth Certificate (Akta Kelahiran Terlambat)Birth Certificate for a Child Born to a Single Mother (Akta Kelahiran Anak Seorang Ibu)Pursuant to the Act's domicile principle, a birth certificate is issued by the Civil Registry of the parents' home prefecture or city, as determined from their Indonesian identity card. This is not always the same place as the actual prefecture or city of birth of the child.
    • There is no such thing as a certified copy of the original birth registration form; all Indonesian birth certificates are abstracts in nature and list an individual's nationality, name, place and date of birth, birth order, parents' names and marital status only. Indonesian birth certificates are typically laminated like Malaysian and Singaporean ones; however, unlike Malaysia and Singapore, it is not done at the time of issuance by the civil registry. The Indonesian government recommends against lamination, as it may render the certificate unacceptable for use overseas (laminated certificates cannot be legalised).[56][57]
    • In 2019, Indonesian local civil registrars began to issue birth certificates with QR codes in lieu of the traditional authenticating signature and stamp. Widodo, director of civil registry services for the Bengkulu Civil Registry, is quoted as saying that "this is by decree of the Minister of Home Affairs, and will help simplify things for the general public as they will no longer be required to go through the hassle of getting [birth certificates] legalised."[58][59] In July 2020, Indonesia phased out birth certificates printed on security paper, and started allowing Indonesian-born people to print out their own birth certificates on regular A4 paper; these certificates have the same legal value as birth certificates printed on security paper. The move reportedly helped the central government save 450 billion rupiahs in the 2020 fiscal year.[60]
    • Iran [ edit ] A shenasnameh (شناØ"نامه), or birth certificate is issued by the National Organization for Civil Registration. It includes the name and surname of the infant, place and date of birth, gender, information relating to the parents including their names and residences, and the "registration documentation (witness or physician's certificate). A newer format was introduced in 2015. Those eligible to replication include newborn babies, people who are changing their names, those who have lost their original birth certificates, and those born before 2001 who have reached the age of 15 and need to change their cards to add the photograph. Those applying for a new certificate must show their old certificate.[61]
    • Japan [ edit ] In Japan, the household registration document (jp: æ¸ç±, koseki) is generally used in lieu of a birth certificate.
    • Since a koseki also acts as proof of Japanese citizenship, only Japanese citizens can hold one. Anyone born in Japan, including children born to non-Japanese parents, can obtain a Certificate of Matters Stated In a Written Notification (jp: 出ç--Ÿå±Šè¨è¼‰äº‹é …証æŽæ›¸, shussei todoke kisai jiko shomeisho). A Certificate of Matters Stated In a Written Notification may be obtained from the city/ward/town office the birth was reported to, and is the equivalent of a birth certificate. This is to be distinguished from a Certificate of Acceptance of Birth Notification (jp: 出ç--Ÿå±Šå—ç†è¨¼æŽ 書, shussei todoke juri shomeisho), which, according to the Australian Embassy at Tokyo, only constitutes a receipt proving that a birth registration has been lodged with a city/ward/town office.[62][63]
    • Birth records for children born to non-Japanese parents in Japan are not maintained permanently; usually only for the duration of ten years from the date of lodgement, but this varies from one city/ward/town office to another.[64]
    • Malaysia [ edit ] In Malaysia, the National Registration Department (Jabatan Pendaftaran Negara) is responsible for the registration of births, and for issuing birth certificates (sijil kelahiran).
    • In 2011, the Department started colour-coding birth certificates. Henceforth, citizens at birth would receive a pale-green birth certificate, while those who do not acquire Malaysian citizenship at birth would be given a red birth certificate. Then-director Datin Jariah Mohd Said was reported as saying that "it [would] address the wrong impression among foreign parents that their children automatically become Malaysians by virtue of them having the pale green certificate."[65]
    • Malaysian birth certificates are laminated at the time of issuance, forming an exception to most countries' need for an unlaminated document (e.g. the United Kingdom when applying for a passport).[66]
    • Morocco [ edit ] In Morocco, there are 3 birth documents: the "Extrait d'acte de naissance" (proof of Moroccan citizenship), a "Fiche individuelle de naissance" and an "Acte de naissance". All of them are valid for 3 months. In 2017, the government opened requests for birth certificates online.[67][68]
    • New Zealand [ edit ] The Department of Internal Affairs is responsible for issuing birth certificates in New Zealand.[69][70] Certain historical records including historical birth certificates are available online in a searchable format on the Birth, Death and Marriage Historical Records website. The available records are for births recorded at least one hundred years ago.
    • Citizenship information is recorded on New Zealand birth certificates for births after 1 January 2006, as this was when the country formally ended its practice of jus soli.[71]
    • A New Zealand birth certificate without citizenship information, issued before 2006.
    • Nigeria [ edit ] The birth certificate in Nigeria is a document that entails the date of birth, location (Town, L.G.A and state) and details of the parents. It is issued by the National Population Commission for every child and is usually issued at the hospital where the child is born and it is compulsory for everyone.The National Population Commission (NPC) formed in 1992, is the only body responsible for registering every newborn and issuing certificates in the country.[72]
    • A person who didn't get a birth certificate at birth can later apply as long as they are below 18. However, only people between age 18 and below are issued a birth certificate. People above age 18 are issued 'Age Declaration Affidavit'. Although now in Nigeria, you will have to provide an attestation letter issued by the NPC as the 'Age Declaration Affidavit' is not a sufficient document as it used to be years ago.
    • An attestation letter is a written document given as backup for the 'Age Declaration Affidavit'.
    • However in terms of legal value and effect, the attestation of a birth certificate is equal to a birth certificate. The NPC Act states that only people born after 1992 are eligible to apply for birth certificate since that was when the NPC was formed. Also only birth certificate issued at birth or 60 days after birth is free any scenario after birth would require you to pay.[72]
    • Philippines [ edit ] A birth certificate in the Philippines is a document being issued by the Philippine Statistics Authority and has lifetime validity.[73] In almost all cases, this document is required by other government agencies as a primary requirement for getting service or benefits.
    • Russia [ edit ] A Russian birth certificate.
    • Russian birth certificates were previously issued in a booklet format, similar to that of internal passports; today, they are issued on numbered and watermarked A4 security paper. They are typically issued in the Russian language only; however, if a birth is recorded in one of the Russian republics with federal subject status, the resulting birth certificate may be bilingual (Russian and the official language of the said republic).[74][75][76]
    • Filling a birth certificate [ edit ] A Russian birth certificate may either be filled out in type or print. It is then signed and sealed by a qualified officer of the public authority issuing the certificate (a local civil registry or Russian overseas mission). By default, information on the parents' ethnic origins is no longer recorded '' however, it may be recorded upon request.
    • Obtaining a birth certificate [ edit ] A Russian birth certificate may be applied for by the person named on the certificate if they are of full age, their parents if still vested with parental rights, their guardian(s) and/or caregiver(s). If the certificate is lost, the public authority that issued the original document issues a replacement on application.
    • Singapore [ edit ] In Singapore, the Immigration and Checkpoints Authority is the registrar of births. All births in the country must be registered at a gazetted birth registration centre by the parents or by authorised proxy.[77] A Certificate of Registration of Birth is received after the registration of birth; a Certificate of Extract from Register of Births is issued for all subsequent requests for birth certificates.
    • The ICA annotates birth certificates with citizenship information; a child born without a claim to Singapore citizenship will have a remark on their birth certificate stating "this child is not a citizen of Singapore at the time of birth".[78] Conversely, a child born with a claim to Singapore citizenship will have "this child is a citizen of Singapore at the time of birth" on theirs.
    • Singaporean birth certificates are laminated at the time of issuance, forming an exception to most foreign countries' need for an unlaminated document (e.g. the United Kingdom when applying for a passport).[66] This practice began on the 1st January 1967.[79]
    • A 1967 Singapore certificate of registration of birth, without indication as to citizenship status.
    • A 1979 Singapore certificate of registration of birth, indicating the child was a citizen of Singapore at birth.
    • An undated Singapore certificate of registration of birth, indicating the child was not a citizen of Singapore at birth.
    • A 2015 Singapore certificate of registration of birth, issued to mark Singapore's 50th anniversary.'
    • A sample Singapore certificate of extract from register of births.
    • Somalia [ edit ] In Somalia, many births go unregistered - owing to the mainly nomadic nature of the populace.[80]
    • Prior to 1991, the Siad Barre government issued birth certificates (Somali: shahaadada dhalashada or warqadda dhalashada) for events occurring in urban areas. Subsequent to the collapse of said government, Somalia ceased to have a functioning birth registration system.[80][81] As of January 2014, it has been reported by the Dutch Ministry of Foreign Affairs that Somalia has once again started issuing birth certificates, primarily for Somali citizens to be able to obtain the new Somali passport.[82] In Mogadishu, this function is fulfilled by the Mayor of Mogadishu.
    • Somali autonomous regions, such as Jubaland, Puntland, and Somaliland, have separate, functioning birth registration systems for those born within their respective jurisdictions. In Somaliland, birth certificates are routinely issued only to babies born at a hospital. Home births are registered by way of affidavit with the Somaliland Ministry of Religious Affairs at Hargeisa.[80]
    • Sweden [ edit ] Sweden no longer issues birth certificates. Instead, the Swedish Tax Agency will issue a Personbevis (Extract from the Population Register) for individuals born in Sweden. This takes the place of both birth and marriage certificates for international purposes. The Extract contains, inter alia, place and date of birth, parental information, marriage status, and current registered address.[83]
    • Syria [ edit ] In Syria, the father is primarily responsible for registering the birth of a child. Due to the ongoing civil war, many births have gone unregistered.[84][85]
    • United Kingdom [ edit ] England and Wales [ edit ] In England and Wales, the description "birth certificate" is used to describe a certified copy of an entry in the birth register.[86]
    • Civil registration of births, marriages and deaths in England and Wales started on 1 July 1837.[87] Registration was not compulsory until 1875, following the Registration of Births and Deaths Act 1874, which made registration of a birth the responsibility of those present at the birth.[88] When a birth is registered, the details are entered into the register book at the local register office for the district in which the birth tookplace and is retained permanently in the local register office. A copy of each entry in the birth register is sent to the General Register Office (GRO).[89]
    • Pre-1837 birth and baptism records [ edit ] Before the government's registration system was created, evidence of births and/or baptisms (and also marriages and death or burials) was dependent on the events being recorded in the records of the Church of England or in those of other various churches '' not all of which maintained such records or all types of those records. Copies of such records are not issued by the General Register Office; but can be obtained from these churches, or from the local or national archive, which usually now keeps the records in original or copy form.
    • Types of certified copies issued in England and Wales [ edit ] Long-form certificates are copies of the original entry in the birth register, giving all the recorded details.[90] Information includes; name, sex, date, and place of birth of the child, father's name, place of birth and occupation, mother's name, place of birth, maiden name, and occupation. Certificates for births registered before 1 April 1969 do not show the parents' places of birth, and those before 1984 do not show mother's occupation.[91]
    • Short-form certificates show the child's full name, sex, date, and place of birth. They do not give any detail(s) of the parent(s); they therefore do not prove parentage.[90] Both versions of a certificate can be used in the verification of identity by acting as a support to other information or documentationprovided. Where proof of parentage is required, only a full certificate will be accepted.[92]
    • The original registrations are required by law[93] to be issued in the form of certified copies to any person who identifies an index entry and pays the prescribed fee. They can be ordered by registered users from the General Register Office Certificate Ordering Service or by postal or telephone ordering from the General Register Office or by post or in person from local registrars. If the birth was registered within the past 50 years, detailed information is required before a certificate will be issued.[94] The General Register Office draws on several registers for the issuance of birth certificates: the Register of Live Births, the Register of Stillbirths, the Abandoned Children Register, the Adopted Children Register, the Parental Order Register,[95] and the Gender Recognition Register (for holders of Gender Recognition Certificates).[96]
    • The General Register Office also issues birth certificates relating to births on UK-registered aircraft, vessels, and births of Her Majesty's Armed Forces dependents. This authority is delegated to the Office by the Registry of Shipping and Seamen, part of the Maritime and Coastguard Agency, for births aboard UK-flagged ships; and by the Civil Aviation Authority for births aboard UK-flagged aircraft.[97][98]
    • A long-form birth certificate.
    • A short-form birth certificate.
    • A long-form adoptive birth certificate.
    • An Armed Forces birth certificate.
    • An airborne birth certificate.
    • A marine birth certificate.
    • Rest of the British Isles [ edit ] In the rest of the British Isles, there are several different birth registration authorities:
    • In Scotland, the National Records of Scotland.[99]In Northern Ireland, the General Register Office Northern Ireland (GRONI).[100]In Guernsey, the Greffe of the Royal Court of Guernsey.[101]In Jersey, the Office of the Superintendent Registrar.[102]In the Isle of Man, the Civil Registry. The registration of births became mandated in 1878 on the Isle.[103]A Scottish birth certificate.
    • A Northern Irish birth certificate.
    • A Guernsey birth certificate.
    • A Jersey birth certificate.
    • An Isle of Man birth certificate.
    • Other cases [ edit ] Consular birth registration is available for those who establish entitlement to British nationality at birth overseas. This is especially helpful when the jurisdiction in question does not allow multiple citizenship or the registration of an illegitimate child's birth.[104] Prior to 1983, such registrations were accepted as proof of British nationality alone. Pursuant to a Reform Order by the Foreign and Commonwealth Office, new consular birth registrations issued for children born after 1 January 1983, and certificates for people born before that date re-issued starting 1 January 2014, are no longer accepted as stand-alone proof of British nationality.[105]
    • In addition, certificates of birth issued under the Registration of Births, Deaths and Marriages (Special Provisions) Act 1957 (registered on HM Forces bases overseas), are also not recognised as proof of nationality status alone. Such births would also have to be registered in the local authority where the birth took place, and the parents would have to apply for a foreign certificate as proof of citizenship.[105]
    • British Overseas Territories have their own independent regimes for issuance of a birth certificate. Additionally, as a result of Argentina's claim over the Falkland Islands, Falklander-born people may also apply for an Argentine birth certificate.[106]
    • A consular birth certificate.
    • United States [ edit ] A California long-form certified copy of a certificate of live birth. This particular copy is for informational purposes only.
    • In the U.S., the issuance of birth certificates is a function of the vital statistics agency or equivalent of the state, capital district, territory[107] or former territory of birth.[108] Birth in the U.S. typically confers citizenship by birth (non-citizen nationality in American Samoa), so a U.S. birth certificate doubly serves as evidence of United States citizenship or non-citizen nationality. U.S. birth certificates are therefore commonly provided to the federal government to obtain a U.S. passport.[109][110]
    • The U.S. State Department issues a Consular Report of Birth Abroad (which does not technically certify birth but often substitutes for a birth certificate) for children born to U.S. citizens or non-citizen nationals (who are also eligible for citizenship or non-citizen nationality), including births on military bases in foreign territory.[111]
    • The federal and state governments have traditionally cooperated to some extent to improve vital statistics. From 1900 to 1946 the U.S. Census Bureau designed standard birth certificates, collected vital statistics on a national basis, and generally sought to improve the accuracy of vital statistics. In 1946 that responsibility was passed to the U.S. Public Health Service. Unlike the British system of recording all births in "registers", the states file an individual document for each and every birth.[112]
    • The U.S. National Center for Health Statistics creates standard forms that are recommended for use by the individual states to document births. However, states are free to create their own forms.[113] As a result, neither the appearance nor the information content of birth certificate forms is uniform across states. These forms are completed by the attendant at birth or a hospital administrator, which are then forwarded to a local or state registrar, who stores the record and issues certified copies upon request.[2]
    • Birth certificates for individuals born in or adopted to the United States [ edit ] A Colorado long-form certified abstract of birth.
    • According to the Department of Health and Human Services, Office of Inspector General, as of 2000[update] there were more than 6,000 entities issuing birth certificates. The Inspector General report stated that according to the staff at the Immigration and Naturalization Service's Forensics Document Laboratory the number of legitimate birth certificate versions in use exceeded 14,000.[114]
    • Short-form birth certificates and acceptance thereof [ edit ] In the case of applying for a U.S. passport, not all legitimate government-issued birth certificates are acceptable:
    • A Florida short-form birth registration card.
    • A certified birth certificate has a registrar's raised, embossed, impressed or multicolored seal, registrar's signature, and the date the certificate was filed with the registrar's office, which must be within 1 year of your birth. Please note, some short (abstract) versions of birth certificates may not be acceptable for passport purposes.
    • Beginning April 1, 2011, all birth certificates must also include the full name of the applicant's parent(s).[115]
    • The U.S. State Department has paid close attention to abstract certificates from both Texas and California. There have been reports of a high incidence of midwife registration fraud along the border region between Texas and Mexico,[116][117] and the Texas abstract certificate form does not list the name or occupation of the attendant. The California Abstract of Birth did not include an embossed seal, was no longer considered a secure document, and have not been issued in California since 2001.[118]
    • Souvenir birth certificates [ edit ] Most hospitals in the U.S. issue a souvenir birth certificate which may include the footprints of the newborn. However, these birth certificates are not legally accepted as proof of age or citizenship, and are frequently rejected by the Bureau of Consular Affairs during passport applications. Many Americans believe the souvenir records to be their official birth certificates when, in reality, they hold little legal value.[119][120]
    • An Arizona certificate of foreign birth for a person born in Mexico, stating that '[it] is not evidence of U.S. citizenship'.
    • Birth certificates after adoption [ edit ] When an adoption is finalized in the U.S., most states and the District of Columbia seal the original birth certificate.[121] In its place, a replacement or amended birth certificate is issued, with the adoptee's new name and adoptive parents listed "as if" the adoptee was born to the adoptive parents.[122] Adopted persons in ten states have an unrestricted right to obtain a copy of the original birth certificate when they are adults: Alabama, Alaska, Colorado, Hawaii, Kansas, Maine, New Hampshire, New York, Oregon, and Rhode Island.[123] The remaining states and the District of Columbia either require a court order to release a copy of the original birth certificate or have other restrictions, such as permission of biological parent(s) or redaction of information upon request of a biological parent.[124][125][126]
    • For foreign-born intercountry adoptees, U.S. jurisdictions may issue a Certificate of Foreign Birth that serves as documentary evidence of the child's birth and the child's legal relationship to the adoptive United States parents. These certificates, however, do not serve as evidence of U.S. citizenship and must be supplemented by another document to prove citizenship, such as a Certificate of Citizenship, a United States passport or a Certificate of Naturalization.[127][128]
    • Consular reports of birth for individuals born overseas [ edit ] Prior to 1990, the Vital Records Section of the Department's Passport Services office was responsible for certifying American births overseas, and issued form FS-545, formally known as a Certification of Birth Abroad of a Citizen of the United States of America. In 1990, the Department changed its policy to make clear that a report issued by them is only supplementary to, and does not substitute for a locally-issued birth certificate; the report, however, does serve as prima facie documentary evidence of the acquisition of United States citizenship or non-citizen nationality at birth. The Department contends that the issuance of birth certificates is a function that is expressly reserved to local vital statistics authorities and may not be assumed by a consular officer.[129]
    • Notwithstanding the Department's position, however, a consular report of birth is often the only government-issued record of birth for certain individuals. For example, those born on a U.S. Armed Forces base in Germany do not have their births registered with the local German registrar, but only with the Department of State. Because they cannot receive a German birth certificate, their CRBA is their de facto birth certificate.[130] Between 1990 and December 2010, the Department issued form DS-1350, formally known as a Certification of Report of Birth of a United States Citizen; and form FS-240, formally known as the Consular Report of Birth Abroad of a Citizen of the United States of America.[131] Since January 2011, the Department of State has issued only form FS-240.
    • A State Department certification of birth abroad, issued prior to 1990.
    • A State Department certification of report of birth, issued between 1990 and 2010.
    • A State Department consular report of birth abroad, issued beginning 2011.
    • See also [ edit ] Birth registration in ancient RomeBirth registration campaign in LiberiaClosed adoptionDeath certificateIdentity cardUse of birth cerificates in smart contractsMarriage certificateMarriage licensePassportVital recordReferences [ edit ] ^ "Goal 17 | Department of Economic and Social Affairs". sdgs.un.org . Retrieved 26 September 2020 . ^ a b Vital Records Registration Handbook Archived 11 April 2008 at the Wayback Machine (Jacksonville, FL: Florida Office of Vital Statistics, 2007) 7. ^ "About Us" Archived 1 August 2008 at the Wayback Machine (UK General Registry Office). Retrieved August 2009, . ^ Brumberg, H.L.; Dozor, D.; Golombek, S.G. (June 2012). "History of the birth certificate: from inception to the future of electronic data". Journal of Perinatology. 32 (6): 407''411. doi:10.1038/jp.2012.3 . PMID 22301527. ^ Convention on the Rights of the Child Archived 11 June 2010 at the Wayback Machine (Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, 1989). Retrieved 17 May 2011. ^ Universal Birth Registration '-- A Universal Responsibility (Woking: Plan International, 2005) ^ a b "Progress for Every Child in the SDG Era". UNICEF. 6 March 2018. ^ "UNICEF Data '' Birth Registration" (data.unicef.org) accessed 18 April 2018. ^ Paula Gerba, "Making Indigenous Australians 'disappear': Problems arising from our birth registration systems," Alternative Law Journal 34, no. 3 (2009): |157''162, [dead link ] . ^ a b Count Every Child (Plan, 2009). ^ The 'Rights' Start to Life, (New York: UNICEF). ^ "Fact sheets," (International Council of Nurses, 21 May 2010). ^ UNICEF (2007) Birth Registration and Armed Conflict, Archived 6 July 2011 at the Wayback Machine (Florence: Innocenti Research Centre, 2007). ^ Inter-Agency Task Team (IATT) on Children and HIV and AIDS Working Group on Civil Registration, Birth and Death Registration in the Context of HIV and AIDS in Eastern and Southern Africa: Human's First and Last Right (Plan, 2008). ^ "Birth Registration: A Topic Proposed for an Executive Committee Conclusion on International Protection," (United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, 9 February 2010). ^ Simon Heap and Claire Cody, "The Universal Birth Registration Campaign," Archived 19 July 2011 at the Wayback Machine Forced Migration Review, no. 32 (2009): 20''22. ^ Futures Denied: Statelessness Among Infants, Children and Youth Archived 12 September 2010 at the Wayback Machine (Refugees International, 2008). ^ "Births, deaths and marriages registries". australia.gov.au . Retrieved 27 January 2019 . ^ "Births". Bdm.nsw.gov.au. Archived from the original on 28 February 2019 . Retrieved 27 January 2019 . ^ "Birth certificate". Bdm.nsw.gov.au. 8 October 2018 . Retrieved 27 January 2019 . ^ "When your baby arrives '' Australian Government Department of Human Services". Humanservices.gov.au. 22 October 2018 . Retrieved 27 January 2019 . ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 10 March 2017 . Retrieved 4 April 2017 . CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 10 March 2017 . Retrieved 4 April 2017 . CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) ^ "Changing Sex on ID - Factsheet" (PDF) . ^ "Archived copy" (PDF) . Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 April 2017 . Retrieved 4 April 2017 . CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) ^ http://www.bdm.nsw.gov.au/Pages/apply-for-certificates/commemorative-certificates.aspx#CommemorativeBirthCertificate ^ "About DVS". Dvs.gov.au. 15 May 2018 . Retrieved 27 January 2019 . ^ "New Birth Certificate Design" (PDF) . ^ Please select all that apply (20 March 2017). "Personal Documents '' Canada.ca". Servicecanada.gc.ca . Retrieved 27 January 2019 . ^ "Civil Code of Quebec". ^ "CMP - Birth Certificates". 2 July 2013. Archived from the original on 2 July 2013 . Retrieved 25 May 2020 . ^ Immigration, Refugees and Citizenship Canada (30 September 2015). "Documents that prove your Canadian citizenship". aem . Retrieved 18 April 2020 . ^ "Calgary woman's Canadian birth certificate not recognized as proof of citizenship". Global News . Retrieved 18 April 2020 . ^ https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/hamilton/canadian-s-military-birth-certificate-doesn-t-prove-citizenship-1.5207184. ^ "What Type of China Birth Certificate Is Required for U.S. Immigration?". Chodorow Law Offices. 22 May 2019 . Retrieved 18 April 2020 . ^ "Notification about initiating and standard management of new edition birth medical certificate issued by National Health and Family Planning Commission of the People's Republic of China and the Ministry of Public Security (Chinese)". National Health and Family Planning Commission of the People's Republic of China. Archived from the original on 6 April 2017 . Retrieved 6 April 2017 . ^ "Birth, marriage, and death certificates will not have an expiration date". CubaS­. 29 February 2020 . Retrieved 14 July 2020 . ^ "Consular Services". CUBADIPLOMATICA. 3 June 2016 . Retrieved 14 July 2020 . ^ lisaparavisini (4 June 2011). "New website launched to find long-lost Cuban birth certificates". Repeating Islands . Retrieved 14 July 2020 . ^ "Denmark". travel.state.gov . Retrieved 26 July 2020 . ^ "Legifrance translations | L(C)gifrance, le service public de la diffusion du droit". www.legifrance.gouv.fr . Retrieved 26 October 2019 . ^ "Application for Search of Birth Records and/or a Certified Copy of a Birth Entry". Immigration Department, The Government of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region . Retrieved 19 April 2019 . ^ "Registration of a Birth". Immigration Department, The Government of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region . Retrieved 19 April 2019 . ^ "VSS Doctors' Guide '' References and Appendices" (PDF) . ^ "25% of Indian births not registered". The Times of India . Retrieved 30 June 2017 . ^ "Passport Seva Application form". passportindia.gov.in. Archived from the original on 7 May 2017 . Retrieved 22 April 2017 . ^ "India Visa Information '' Australia '' Consular Miscellaneous Services '' Issue of Birth Certificate '' Basis Indian Passport". vfsglobal.com. Archived from the original on 22 April 2017 . Retrieved 22 April 2017 . Issuance of birth certificate to Indian nationals on the basis of valid Indian passport. ^ a b "Department of Dte.of Economics & Statistics". delhi.gov.in. Government of NCT of Delhi. Archived from the original on 18 September 2014 . Retrieved 22 April 2017 . ^ "Birth Certificates". chennaicorporation.gov.in. Greater Chennai Corporation . Retrieved 15 January 2018 . ^ "DISTRIBUSI IISALINANUNDANG-UNDANG REPUBLIK INDONESIANOMOR24 TAHUN2013TENTANGPERUBAHAN ATAS UNDANG-UNDANG NOMOR 23 TAHUN 2006TENTANG ADMINISTRASI KEPENDUDUKAN" (PDF) . 2013. ^ "Undang-Undang Nomor 23 Tahun 2006 tentang Administrasi Kependudukan" (PDF) . ^ a b "Perlunya Reformasi Pencatatan Kelahiran di Indonesia". hukumonline.com (in Indonesian). 24 April 2006 . Retrieved 18 April 2020 . ^ alfakurnia (15 January 2020). "Akta Kelahiran Untuk Anak yang Lahir Di Luar Negeri". Pojok Mungil (in Indonesian) . Retrieved 26 May 2020 . ^ "Lihat! Barcode di KK dan Akta Mulai Diterapkan di KBB". Jabar Ekspres Online (in Indonesian). 15 July 2019 . Retrieved 18 April 2020 . ^ (PDF) https://kependudukan.denpasarkota.go.id/new/public/ckfinder/userfiles/files/syarat-pencapilan.pdf. ^ prokal.co. "Akta Kelahiran Jangan Dilaminating Permanen | Balikpapan Pos". balikpapan.prokal.co (in Indonesian) . Retrieved 18 July 2020 . ^ "Jangan Melaminating Dokumen" . Retrieved 18 July 2020 . ^ "Pencetakan Akta Kelahiran Gunakan HVS Dilengkapi Barcode | Terkini! Seputar Kota". Terkini! (in Indonesian). 6 March 2020 . Retrieved 18 April 2020 . ^ "Undang-Undang Nomor 23 Tahun 2006". hukumonline.com/pusatdata (in Indonesian) . Retrieved 25 May 2020 . ^ "Mantap! Kini KK, Akta Lahir, dan Kematian Bisa Cetak Sendiri di Kertas HVS". kumparan (in Indonesian) . Retrieved 23 July 2020 . ^ https://www.justice.gov/sites/default/files/pages/attachments/2015/12/07/irn105037.e.pdf ^ (PDF) https://japan.embassy.gov.au/files/seol/17%2001%20-%20CBD%20checklist%20-%20ENG.pdf. ^ "Birth Certificate in Japan". legalization.tokyo . Retrieved 18 April 2020 . ^ "Obtaining Vital Records". U.S. Embassy & Consulates in Japan . Retrieved 25 May 2020 . ^ "Dept adds colour to birth certs | The Star Online". The Star. Malaysia . Retrieved 18 April 2020 . ^ a b "HM Passport Office: Passports policy" (PDF) . ^ "Refworld | Morocco: Description of a birth certificate". ^ "Moroccans to Get Birth Certificates Online". ^ Births, Deaths, Marriages, and Relationships Registration Amendment Act 2008 ^ Birth, Death and Marriages website ^ "Get proof you are a citizen". New Zealand Government . Retrieved 18 April 2020 . ^ a b Mfonobong, Daniel (16 February 2020). "How To Obtain Birth Certificate in Nigeria: Procedures & Cost (2020)". Nigerian Infopedia . Retrieved 23 September 2020 . ^ "Birth Certificate". Philippine Statistics Authority . Retrieved 30 June 2021 . ^ "ПÑавитеÐ>>ьство утвеÑдиÐ>>о ÑоÑму вкÐ>>адыÑа в свидетеÐ>>ьство о Ñождении, ÐодтвеÑждающеÐ"о Ð"Ñажданство ÑÑ". ^ "О ПОРЯÐ--КЕ ОФОРÐ'ЛЕÐ'ÐЯ Ð Ð'ÐÐ--АЧРÐ'КЛАÐ--ÐША Ð' ÐÐ'ÐÐ--ЕÐЕЛЬÐÐÐ'О О РОЖÐ--ЕÐ'ÐÐ, ПОÐ--ÐÐ'ЕРЖÐ--АЮÐ(C)ЕÐ'О Ð'АЛÐЧÐЕ У РЕБЕÐ'КА Ð'РАЖÐ--АÐ'ÐÐÐ'А РОÐÐÐÐÐКОРФЕÐ--ЕРАÐ...ÐÐ. ПÑиказ. Ð'инистеÑство внутÑенних деÐ>> РФ (Ð'Ð'Ð-- России). 18.04.03 257. ПÑедÐÑиниматеÐ>>ьское ÐÑаво". businesspravo.ru . Retrieved 18 April 2020 . ^ "How to get a copy of your Russian birth certificate". Legal Beagle . Retrieved 18 April 2020 . ^ "ICA | Registration and Collection of Birth Certificate". www.ica.gov.sg . Retrieved 16 July 2020 . ^ KIRUPPALINI, HEMA (4 August 2010). Travelling Dwellers: Nepalese Lahure in Singapore (Thesis thesis). ^ (PDF) http://www.nas.gov.sg/archivesonline/data/pdfdoc/PressR19661230e.pdf. ^ a b c Refugees, United Nations High Commissioner for. "Refworld | Somalia: Birth registration, including the issuance of birth certificates; the registration of children attending school; title deeds; whether the owner of a home or business must obtain a title deed (2009-June 2013)". Refworld . Retrieved 30 June 2020 . ^ Refugees, United Nations High Commissioner for. "Refworld | Somalia: Birth Certificates". Refworld . Retrieved 30 June 2020 . ^ ---, Dutch Ministry of Foreign Affairs (2019). "Country of Origin Information Report on South and Central Somalia" (PDF) . CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) ^ skatteverket.se, Skatteverket. "Information to foreign authorities". skatteverket.se . Retrieved 18 April 2020 . ^ https://www.fmreview.org/sites/fmr/files/FMRdownloads/en/syria2018/clutterbuck-cunial-barsanti-gewis.pdf ^ https://www.refworld.org/docid/57fe3a9ba88.html ^ Melanie Lee (14 January 2011). "GRO information on birth certificates in England and Wales" (PDF) . whatdotheyno.com. General Registre Office . Retrieved 7 September 2015 . ^ "Civil Registration in England and Wales". genuki.org.uk . Retrieved 7 September 2015 . ^ "Registration of Births and Deaths Act 1874". Government of the United Kingdom . Retrieved 7 September 2015 . ^ "Official information on births, marriages and deaths". General Register Office. Archived from the original on 12 June 2006 . Retrieved 7 September 2015 . ^ a b "Register a Birth". Government of the United Kingdom. 14 July 2015 . Retrieved 8 September 2015 . ^ GRO (2015). "Information on a birth, marriage or death certificate". Government of the United Kingdom . Retrieved 8 September 2015 . ^ Treasury Solicitor's Department (10 March 2014). "Proof of Identity checklist for individuals". Government of the United Kingdom . Retrieved 8 September 2015 . ^ Births and Deaths Registration Act, 1953, 1 & 2 Eliz. 2, c. 1. Retrieved October 2011. ^ GRO (2015). "Ordering a certificate for events which have taken place during the last 50 years". Government of the United Kingdom . Retrieved 8 September 2015 . ^ "Deed Poll Office (D·P·O)". Deed Poll Office . Retrieved 25 March 2020 . ^ https://www.tameside.gov.uk/Registrars/Gender-Recognition. ^ "Births and Deaths". www.ukshipregister.co.uk . Retrieved 12 September 2020 . ^ Archives, The National. "The National Archives - Homepage". The National Archives . Retrieved 31 May 2020 . ^ "Birth, death and marriage certificates in Scotland - mygov.scot". mygov.scot . Retrieved 18 April 2020 . ^ "General Register Office for Northern Ireland". Government of the United Kingdom . Retrieved 18 April 2020 . ^ Chief Executive, United Kingdom (21 June 2011). "Registration of Births". www.guernseyroyalcourt.gg . Retrieved 31 May 2020 . ^ Jersey, States of. "Government of Jersey". gov.je . Retrieved 31 May 2020 . ^ "Isle of Man Government - Records Held". www.gov.im . Retrieved 31 May 2020 . ^ "House of Commons - Draft Legislative Reform (Overseas Registration of Births and Deaths) Order 2014 - Regulatory Reform Committee". publications.parliament.uk . Retrieved 18 May 2020 . ^ a b "Birth certificates and the full birth certificate policy". GOV.UK . Retrieved 31 May 2020 . ^ "Museo Malvinas e Islas del Atlntico Sur". www.facebook.com . Retrieved 7 August 2020 . ^ Birth Certificate Fraud Archived 14 May 2017 at the Wayback Machine (Office of Inspector General, U. S. Department of Health and Human Services, 1988), iii. ^ Specifically, the Panama Canal Zone and Philippines. [1] Archived 1 December 2017 at the Wayback Machine ^ |Margaret Lee, U.S. Citizenship of Persons Born in the United States to Alien Parents, Congressional Research Service Report for Congress, (UNT Digital Library, 12 May 2006). ^ Report of the panel to evaluate the standard U.S. certificates (Division of Vital Statistics National'-- Center for Health Statistics, April 2000, addenda November 2001), 60. ^ Replace Your Vital Records: Get a Copy of Your Birth Certificate, USA.gov ^ Report of the panel to evaluate the standard U.S. certificates (Division of Vital Statistics National'-- Center for Health Statistics, April 2000, addenda November 2001). ^ 2003 Revisions of the U.S. Standard Certificates (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, last updated 27 April 2011). ^ Birth Certificate Fraud Archived 14 May 2017 at the Wayback Machine (Office of Inspector General, U. S. Department of Health and Human Services, 1988), 11. ^ "First Time Applicants", US State Department. Retrieved 26 July 2011. ^ "They Say They Were Born in the U.S.A. The State Department Says Prove It", The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved 11 January 2012. ^ "NOTICE OF FINAL SETTLEMENT AGREEMENT IN A CLASS ACTION, Castellano, et al. v. Clinton, et al." Archived 21 May 2012 at the Wayback Machine, US State Department. Retrieved 11 January 2012. ^ "FAQs '' Birth, Death, and Marriage Services" Archived 9 May 2011 at the Wayback Machine, Santa Clara County '' Office of the Clerk-Recorder. Retrieved 11 January 2012. ^ authorFebruary 27, Diana C. Post; Pm, 2016 at 8:08 (3 January 2019). "Birth Certificate Translation for USCIS, Spanish to English | Southeast Spanish, Inc" . Retrieved 2 November 2019 . ^ Bob Rankin, "Passports Online" on Ask Bob Rankin, 2006. ^ Adoptee Rights Law Center, The United States of OBC , retrieved 26 September 2020 ^ Most American Adoptees Can't Access Their Birth Certificates. That Could Soon Change., Mother Jones , retrieved 26 September 2020 ^ The United States According to Bastard Nation , retrieved 26 September 2020 ^ Access to Adoption Records, Washington, D.C.: Child Welfare Information Gateway, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Administration for Children and Families, Children's Bureau, 2020 ^ American Adoption Congress, State Adoption Legislation , retrieved 26 September 2020 ^ Adoptee Rights Law Center, OBC Rights Map , retrieved 26 September 2020 ^ "Oregon Health Authority : Adoption: Foreign Born : Change Vital Records : State of Oregon". oregon.gov . Retrieved 18 April 2020 . ^ "36-338 '' Certificates of foreign birth for adoptees". azleg.gov . Retrieved 18 April 2020 . ^ "7 FAM 1440 CONSULAR REPORT OF BIRTH OF A CITIZEN/NON-CITIZEN NATIONAL OF THE UNITED STATES". fam.state.gov . Retrieved 18 April 2020 . ^ "Obtaining a Birth Certificate if born in Germany". www.germany.info. Ausw¤rtiges Amt . Retrieved 25 May 2020 . ^ "Replace or Amend a Consular Report of Birth Abroad (CRBA)". U.S. Embassy in the Dominican Republic . Retrieved 25 May 2020 .
  • Pedagogy - Wikipedia
    • Link to Article
    • Archived Version
    • Wed, 13 Oct 2021 01:52
    •  
    • Theory and practice of education
    • Woman teaching geometry (Detail of a XIV-century illuminated manuscript, at the beginning of
    • Euclid's
    • Elementa, in the translation attributed to
    • Adelard of Bath).
    • Pedagogy (), most commonly understood as the approach to teaching, is the theory and practice of learning, and how this process influences, and is influenced by, the social, political and psychological development of learners. Pedagogy, taken as an academic discipline, is the study of how knowledge and skills are imparted in an educational context, and it considers the interactions that take place during learning. Both the theory and practice of pedagogy vary greatly, as they reflect different social, political, and cultural contexts.[1]
    • Pedagogy is often described as the act of teaching.[2] The pedagogy adopted by teachers shapes their actions, judgments, and other teaching strategies by taking into consideration theories of learning, understandings of students and their needs, and the backgrounds and interests of individual students.[3][4] Its aims may range from furthering liberal education (the general development of human potential) to the narrower specifics of vocational education (the imparting and acquisition of specific skills). Conventional western pedagogies view the teacher as knowledge holder and student as the recipient of knowledge (described by Paulo Freire as "banking methods"[5]), but theories of pedagogy increasingly identify the student as an agent and the teacher as a facilitator.
    • Instructive strategies are governed by the pupil's background knowledge and experience, situation, and environment, as well as learning goals set by the student and teacher. One example would be the Socratic method.[6]
    • Etymology and pronunciation [ edit ] The word pedagogy is a derivative of the Greek ÏαιδαÎ"ωÎ"ία (paidagōgia), from ÏαιδαÎ"ωÎ"ός (paidagōgos), itself a synthesis of á¼Î"ω (gō), "I lead", and Ïαá–Ï‚ (pa­s, genitive Ïαιδός , paidos) "boy, child": hence, "attendance on boys, to lead a child".[7] It is pronounced variously, as , , or .[8][9] The related word pedagogue has had a negative connotation of pedantry, dating from at least the 1650s;[10] a related expression is educational theorist.
    • History [ edit ] This section
    • needs expansion. You can help by
    • adding to it.
    • Relevant discussion may be found on the talk page.
    • ( October 2018 ) Western [ edit ] In the Western world, pedagogy is associated with the Greek tradition of philosophical dialogue, particularly the Socratic method of inquiry.[11] A more general account of its development holds that it emerged from the active concept of humanity as distinct from a fatalistic one and that history and human destiny are results of human actions.[12] This idea germinated in ancient Greece and was further developed during the Renaissance, the Reformation, and the age of Enlightenment.[12]
    • Socrates [ edit ] Socrates (470 '' 399 BCE) employed the Socratic method while engaging with a student or peer. This style does not impart knowledge, but rather tries to strengthen the logic of the student by revealing the conclusions of the statement of the student as erroneous or supported. The instructor in this learning environment recognizes the learners' need to think for themselves to facilitate their ability to think about problems and issues.[13] It was first described by Plato in the Socratic Dialogues.
    • Plato [ edit ] Plato (428/427 or 424/423 '' 348/347 BCE) describes a system of education in The Republic (375 BCE) in which individual and family rights are sacrificed to the State. He describes three castes: one to learn a trade; one to learn literary and aesthetic ideas; and one to be trained in literary, aesthetic, scientific, and philosophical ideas.[14] Plato saw education as a fulfillment of the soul, and by fulfilling the soul the body subsequently benefited. Plato viewed physical education for all as a necessity to a stable society.[14]
    • Aristotle [ edit ] Aristotle (384''322 BCE) composed a treatise, On Education, which was subsequently lost. However, he renounced Plato's view in subsequent works, advocating for a common education mandated to all citizens by the State. A small minority of people residing within Greek city-states at this time were considered citizens, and thus Aristotle still limited education to a minority within Greece. Aristotle advocates physical education should precede intellectual studies.[14]
    • Quintilian [ edit ] Marcus Fabius Quintilianus (35 '' 100 CE) published his pedagogy in Institutio Oratoria (95 CE). He describes education as a gradual affair, and places certain responsibilities on the teacher. He advocates for rhetorical, grammatical, scientific, and philosophical education.[14]
    • Tertullian [ edit ] Quintus Septimius Florens Tertullianus (155 - 240 CE) was a Christian scholar who rejected all pagan education, insisting this was "a road to the false and arrogant wisdom of ancient philosophers".[14]
    • Jerome [ edit ] Saint Jerome (347 - 30 September 420 CE), or Saint Hieronymus, was a Christian scholar who detailed his pedagogy of girls in numerous letters throughout his life. He did not believe the body in need of training, and thus advocated for fasting and mortification to subdue the body.[14] He only recommends the Bible as reading material, with limited exposure, and cautions against musical instruments. He advocates against letting girls interact with society, and of having "affections for one of her companions than for others."[14] He does recommend teaching the alphabet by ivory blocks instead of memorization so "She will thus learn by playing."[14] He is an advocate of positive reinforcement, stating "Do not chide her for the difficulty she may have in learning. On the contrary, encourage her by commendation..."[14]
    • Jean Gerson [ edit ] Jean Charlier de Gerson (13 December 1363 '' 12 July 1429), the Chancellor of the University of Paris, wrote in De parvulis ad Christum trahendis "Little children are more easily managed by caresses than fear," supporting a more gentle approach than his Christian predecessors. He also states "Above all else, let the teacher make an effort to be a father to his pupils." He is considered a precursor of Fenelon.[14]
    • John Amos Comenius [ edit ] John Amos Comenius (28 March 1592 '' 15 November 1670) is considered the father of modern education.
    • Johann Pestalozzi [ edit ] Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi (January 12, 1746 '' February 17, 1827), founder of several educational institutions both in German- and French-speaking regions of Switzerland and wrote many works explaining his revolutionary modern principles of education. His motto was "Learning by head, hand and heart".[15]
    • Johann Herbart [ edit ] The educational philosophy and pedagogy of Johann Friedrich Herbart (4 May 1776 - 14 August 1841) highlighted the correlation between personal development and the resulting benefits to society. In other words, Herbart proposed that humans become fulfilled once they establish themselves as productive citizens. Herbartianism refers to the movement underpinned by Herbart's theoretical perspectives.[16] Referring to the teaching process, Herbart suggested five steps as crucial components. Specifically, these five steps include: preparation, presentation, association, generalization, and application.[17] Herbart suggests that pedagogy relates to having assumptions as an educator and a specific set of abilities with a deliberate end goal in mind.[18]
    • John Dewey [ edit ] The pedagogy of John Dewey (20 October 1859 '' 1 June 1952) is presented in several works, including My Pedagogic Creed (1897), The School and Society (1900), The Child and the Curriculum (1902), Democracy and Education (1916), Schools of To-morrow (1915) with Evelyn Dewey, and Experience and Education (1938). In his eyes, the purpose of education should not revolve around the acquisition of a pre-determined set of skills, but rather the realization of one's full potential and the ability to use those skills for the greater good (My Pedagogic Creed, Dewey, 1897). Dewey advocated for an educational structure that strikes a balance between delivering knowledge while also taking into account the interests and experiences of the student (The Child and the Curriculum, Dewey, 1902). Dewey not only re-imagined the way that the learning process should take place but also the role that the teacher should play within that process. He envisioned a divergence from the mastery of a pre-selected set of skills to the cultivation of autonomy and critical-thinking within the teacher and student alike.
    • Paulo Freire [ edit ] Paulo Reglus Neves Freire (September 19, 1921 '' May 2, 1997) was a Brazilian educator and philosopher who was a leading advocate of critical pedagogy. He is best known for his influential work Pedagogy of the Oppressed, which is generally considered one of the foundational texts of the critical pedagogy movement.[19][20][21]
    • Eastern [ edit ] Confucius [ edit ] Confucius (551''479 BCE) stated that authority has the responsibility to provide oral and written instruction to the people under the rule, and "should do them good in every possible way."[14] One of the deepest teachings of Confucius may have been the superiority of personal exemplification over explicit rules of behavior. His moral teachings emphasized self-cultivation, emulation of moral exemplars, and the attainment of skilled judgment rather than knowledge of rules. Other relevant practices in the Confucian teaching tradition include the Rite and its notion of body-knowledge as well as Confucian understanding of the self, one that has a broader conceptualization than the Western individual self.[22]
    • [ edit ] A study on the central organ of the National Socialist Teachers' Union (NSLB) has been published at the Research Center for National Socialist Education at the University of Frankfurt am Main. Over 90 percent of the teachers were organized in it. The NSLB was not a harmless professional organization, but an integral part of the Nazi system, which accompanied the murder program with racism, hostility to Jews and agitation against the persecuted. The vast majority of teachers did not join the organization by force, but voluntarily and gladly.[23] Nevertheless there are some teachers like the Austrian priest Heinrich Maier who founded a resistance group and actively took action against the Nazi system. The group passed very important military information to the Allies, was discovered by the Gestapo and most of its members were executed.[24][25] The denominational area was particularly affected by National Socialism, because denominational schools were closed and religious events in the school area were generally banned. Knowledge transfer was followed by political and physical training, which ranged from sport to paramilitary training.[26]
    • Pedagogical considerations [ edit ] Hidden curriculum [ edit ] A hidden curriculum is a side effect of an education, "[lessons] which are learned but not openly intended"[27] such as the transmission of norms, values, and beliefs conveyed in the classroom and the social environment.[28]
    • Learning space [ edit ] Learning space or learning setting refers to a physical setting for a learning environment, a place in which teaching and learning occur.[29] The term is commonly used as a more definitive alternative to "classroom,"[30] but it may also refer to an indoor or outdoor location, either actual or virtual. Learning spaces are highly diverse in use, learning styles, configuration, location, and educational institution. They support a variety of pedagogies, including quiet study, passive or active learning, kinesthetic or physical learning, vocational learning, experiential learning, and others.
    • Learning theories [ edit ] Learning theories are conceptual frameworks describing how knowledge is absorbed, processed, and retained during learning. Cognitive, emotional, and environmental influences, as well as prior experience, all play a part in how understanding, or a world view, is acquired or changed and knowledge and skills retained.[31][32]
    • Distance learning [ edit ] Distance education or long-distance learning is the education of students who may not always be physically present at a school.[33][34] Traditionally, this usually involved correspondence courses wherein the student corresponded with the school via post. Today it involves online education. Courses that are conducted (51 percent or more)[35] are either hybrid,[36] blended[37] or 100% distance learning. Massive open online courses (MOOCs), offering large-scale interactive participation and open access through the World Wide Web or other network technologies, are recent developments in distance education.[33] A number of other terms (distributed learning, e-learning, online learning, etc.) are used roughly synonymously with distance education.
    • Teaching resource adaptation [ edit ] Adapting the teaching resource should suit appropriate teaching and learning environments, national and local cultural norms, and make it accessible to different types of learners. Key adaptations in teaching resource include:[38]
    • Classroom constraints
    • Large class size '' consider smaller groups or have discussions in pairs;Time available '' shorten or lengthen the duration of activities;Modifying materials needed '' find, make or substitute required materials;Space requirements '' reorganize classroom, use a larger space, move indoors or outdoors.[38]Cultural familiarity
    • Change references to names, food and items to make them more familiar;Substitute local texts or art (folklore, stories, songs, games, artwork and proverbs).[38]Local relevance
    • Use the names and processes for local institutions such as courts;Be sensitive of local behavior norms (e.g. for genders and ages);Ensure content is sensitive to the degree of rule of law in society (trust in authorities and institutions).[38]Inclusivity for diverse students
    • Appropriate reading level(s) of texts for student use;Activities for different learning styles;Accommodation for students with special educational needs;Sensitivity to cultural, ethnic and linguistic diversity;Sensitivity to students' socioeconomic status.[38]Pedagogical approaches [ edit ] Critical pedagogy [ edit ] Critical pedagogy is both a pedagogical approach and a broader social movement. Critical pedagogy asserts that educational practices are contested and shaped by history, that schools are not politically neutral spaces, and that teaching is political. Decisions regarding the curriculum, disciplinary practices, student testing, textbook selection, the language used by the teacher, and more can empower or disempower students. It recognizes that educational practices favor some students over others and some practices harm all students. It also recognizes that educational practices often favor some voices and perspectives while marginalizing or ignoring others. Another aspect examined is the power the teacher holds over students and the implications of this. Its aims include empowering students to become active and engaged citizens, who are able to actively improve their own lives and their communities.[39]
    • Critical pedagogical practices may include, listening to and including students' knowledge and perspectives in class, making connections between school and the broader community, and posing problems to students that encourage them to question assumed knowledge and understandings. The goal of problem posing to students is to enable them to begin to pose their own problems. Teachers acknowledge their position of authority and exhibit this authority through their actions that support students.[39]
    • Dialogic learning [ edit ] Dialogic learning is learning that takes place through dialogue. It is typically the result of egalitarian dialogue; in other words, the consequence of a dialogue in which different people provide arguments based on validity claims and not on power claims.[40]
    • Student-centered learning [ edit ] Student-centered learning, also known as learner-centered education, broadly encompasses methods of teaching that shift the focus of instruction from the teacher to the student. In original usage, student-centered learning aims to develop learner autonomy and independence[41] by putting responsibility for the learning path in the hands of students.[42][43][44] Student-centered instruction focuses on skills and practices that enable lifelong learning and independent problem-solving.[45]
    • Academic degrees [ edit ] The academic degree Ped. D., Doctor of Pedagogy, is awarded honorarily by some US universities to distinguished teachers (in the US and UK, earned degrees within the instructive field are classified as an Ed. D., Doctor of Education, or a Ph.D., Doctor of Philosophy). The term is also used to denote an emphasis in education as a specialty in a field (for instance, a Doctor of Music degree in piano pedagogy).
    • Pedagogues across the world [ edit ] The education of pedagogues, and their role in society, varies greatly from culture to culture.
    • Brazil [ edit ] In Brazil, a pedagogue is a multidisciplinary educator. Undergraduate education in Pedagogy qualifies students to become school administrators or coordinators at all educational levels, and also to become multidisciplinary teachers, such as pre-school, elementary and special teachers.
    • Denmark [ edit ] Germany: A kindergarten teacher facilitates play for a group of children (1960)
    • In Scandinavia, a pedagogue (p...dagog) is broadly speaking a practitioner of pedagogy, but the term is primarily reserved for individuals who occupy jobs in pre-school education (such as kindergartens and nurseries). A pedagogue can occupy various kinds of jobs, within this restrictive definition, e.g. in retirement homes, prisons, orphanages, and human resource management. When working with at-risk families or youths they are referred to as social pedagogues (socialp...dagog).
    • The pedagogue's job is usually distinguished from a teacher's by primarily focusing on teaching children life-preparing knowledge such as social or non-curriculum skills, and cultural norms. There is also a very big focus on the care and well-being of the child. Many pedagogical institutions also practice social inclusion. The pedagogue's work also consists of supporting the child in their mental and social development.[46]
    • In Denmark all pedagogues are educated at a series of national institutes for social educators located in all major cities. The education is a 3.5-year academic course, giving the student the title of a Bachelor in Social Education (Danish: Professionsbachelor som p...dagog).[47][48]
    • It is also possible to earn a master's degree in pedagogy/educational science from the University of Copenhagen. This BA and MA program has a more theoretical focus compared to the more vocational Bachelor in Social Education.
    • Hungary [ edit ] In Hungary, the word pedagogue (pedag"gus) is synonymous with the teacher (tanr); therefore, teachers of both primary and secondary schools may be referred to as pedagogues, a word that appears also in the name of their lobbyist organizations and labor unions (e.g. Labor Union of Pedagogues, Democratic Labor Union of Pedagogues[49]). However, undergraduate education in Pedagogy does not qualify students to become teachers in primary or secondary schools but makes them able to apply to be educational assistants. As of 2013, the 6-year training period was re-installed in place of the undergraduate and postgraduate division which characterized the previous practice.[50]
    • India [ edit ] In India, the Gurukula system was followed. A gurukula or gurukulam is a type of education system of ancient India with shishya ('students' or 'disciples') living near or with the guru, in the same house. The guru-shishya tradition is a sacred one in Hinduism and appears in other religions too in India, such as Jainism, Buddhism and Sikhism. The word gurukula is a combination of the Sanskrit words guru ('teacher' or 'master') and kula ('family' or 'home'). Before British rule, they served as South Asia's primary educational system. The term is also used today to refer to residential monasteries or schools operated by modern gurus. The proper plural of the term is gurukulam, though the terms ''gurukulas'' and ''gurukuls'' are also used in English and some other Western languages.The students learn from the guru and help the guru in his everyday life, including carrying out of mundane daily household chores. However, some scholars suggest that the activities are not mundane and are an essential part of the education and is also a method to inculcate self-discipline among students. Typically, a guru does not receive or accept any fees from the shishya studying with him as the relationship between a guru and the shishya is considered very sacred.At the end of one's education, a shishya offers the guru a gurudakshina (donation, fees, or honorarium to the teacher) before leaving the gurukula. The gurudakshina is a traditional gesture of acknowledgment, respect and thanks to the guru, which may be monetary, but may also be a special task the teacher wants the student to accomplish. While living in a gurukula, the students would be away from their home from a period of months to years at a stretch. The gurukula system of education has been in existence since ancient times. The Upanishads mention multiple gurukulam, including that of guru Dronacharya. The Bhrigu Valli (a discourse on the Brahman) is said to have taken place in Guru Varuni's gurukula. The Vedic school of thought prescribes the gurukula (sacred rite of passage) to all individuals before the age of 8 (at least by 12). From initiation until the age of 25 all individuals are prescribed celibacy and bachelorhood, besides being students.Gurukulam were supported by public donations. This was followed by many following Vedic thoughts, making gurukula one of the earliest forms of public-school centers.During the British colonial era, the gurukula system was on a steep decline in India. Dayananda Saraswathi, the founder of Arya Samaj and Swami Shraddhanand, were the pioneers of the modern gurukula system; in 1886 was founded the now-widespread Dayanand Anglo-Vedic Public Schools and Universities.In 1948, Shastriji Maharaj Shree Dharamjivan das Swami followed suit and initiated the first Swaminarayan Gurukula in Rajkot in Gujarat state of India. Recently, several gurukulam have opened in India as well as overseas with a desire to uphold Hindu gurukulam tradition.Various gurukulam still exist in India, and researchers have been studying the effectiveness of the system through those institutions. With the advent of new means of mass communication, many gurus and Vedantic scholars are opening E-Gurukulam. These gurukulam are operating online and are now imparting knowledge about different Hindu scriptures using the internet. Most of these gurukulam are breaking traditional bounds by allowing women to get access to knowledge about the scriptures and Vedas.The Gurukulam system of education is available outside of India as well, e.g., in Belgium, at the Jain Culture Center of Antwerp, children between the ages of 8 and 16 study Vedic Mathematics, Vedic Art, Vedic Music, Sanskrit and Yoga.
    • Modern pedagogy [ edit ] An article from Kathmandu Post published on 3 June 2018 described the usual first day of school in an academic calendar. Teachers meet their students with distinct traits. The diversity of attributions among children or teens exceeds similarities. Educators have to teach students with different cultural, social, and religious backgrounds. This situation entails a differentiated strategy in pedagogy and not the traditional approach for teachers to accomplish goals efficiently.[51]
    • American author and educator Carol Ann Tomlinson defined Differentiated Instruction as "teachers' efforts in responding to inconsistencies among students in the classroom." Differentiation refers to methods of teaching.[52] She explained that Differentiated Instruction gives learners a variety of alternatives for acquiring information. Primary principles comprising the structure of Differentiated Instruction include formative and ongoing assessment, group collaboration, recognition of students' diverse levels of knowledge, problem-solving, and choice in reading and writing experiences.[53]
    • Howard Gardner gained prominence in the education sector for his Multiple Intelligences Theory.[54] He named seven of these intelligences in 1983: Linguistic, Logical and Mathematical, Visual and Spatial, Body and Kinesthetic, Musical and Rhythmic, Intrapersonal, and Interpersonal. Critics say the theory is based only on Gardner's intuition instead of empirical data. Another criticism is that the intelligence is too identical for types of personalities.[55] The theory of Howard Gardner came from cognitive research and states these intelligence help people to "know the world, understand themselves, and other people." Said differences dispute an educational system that presumes students can "understand the same materials in the same manner and that a standardized, collective measure is very much impartial towards linguistic approaches in instruction and assessment as well as to some extent logical and quantitative styles."[56]
    • See also [ edit ] References [ edit ] ^ Li, G., 2012. Culturally contested Pedagogy: Battles of literacy and schooling between mainstream teachers and Asian immigrant parents. Suny Press. ^ "Definition of PEDAGOGY". Merriam-webster.com . Retrieved 9 January 2019 . ^ "Blueprint for government schools. Flagship strategy 1: Student Learning. The Principles of Learning and Teaching P-12 Background Paper" (PDF) . Department of Education and Training Victoria. Archived from the original (PDF) on 15 February 2017 . Retrieved 12 June 2017 . ^ Shulman, Lee (1987). "Knowledge and Teaching: Foundations of the New Reform" (PDF) . Harvard Educational Review. 15 (2): 4''14 . Retrieved 12 June 2017 . ^ Freire, P., 2018. Pedagogy of the oppressed. Bloomsbury Publishing USA. ^ Petrie et al. (2009). Pedagogy '' a holistic, personal approach to work with children and young people, across services. p. 4. ^ "pedagogy". Online Etymology Dictionary. ^ "Pedagogy definition and meaning | Collins English Dictionary". Collinsdictionary.com . Retrieved 16 April 2021 . ^ "pedagogy noun '' definition in British English Dictionary & Thesaurus '' Cambridge Dictionary Online". Dictionary.cambridge.org. 10 October 2012 . Retrieved 29 October 2012 . ^ "pedagogue". Online Etymology Dictionary. ^ Crappell, Courtney (2019). Teaching Piano Pedagogy: A Guidebook for Training Effective Teachers. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 160. ISBN 978-0-19-067052-8. ^ a b Couss(C)e, Filip; Verschelden, Griet; Williamson, Howard (2009). The History of Youth Work in Europe: Relevance for Youth Policy Today. Strasbourg Cedex: Council of Europe. p. 96. ISBN 978-92-871-7244-0. ^ Chesters, Sarah Davey (2012). The Socratic Classroom. Cham, Switzerland: Springer Science & Business Media. p. 35. ISBN 978-94-6091-855-1. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Compayr(C), Gabriel (1892). The History of Pedagogy. D.C. Heath & Company. ^ Barnard, Henry; Pestalozzi, Johann (1859). Pestalozzi and Pestalozzianism: Life, Educational Principles, and Methods of Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi. FC Brownell. . ^ "Herbartianism | education". Encyclop...dia Britannica . Retrieved 2 November 2015 . ^ "Johann Friedrich Herbart | biography '' German educator". Encyclop...dia Britannica . Retrieved 2 November 2015 . ^ Kenklies, Karsten (12 February 2012). "Educational Theory as Topological Rhetoric: The Concepts of Pedagogy of Johann Friedrich Herbart and Friedrich Schleiermacher". Studies in Philosophy and Education. 31 (3): 265''273. doi:10.1007/s11217-012-9287-6. ISSN 0039-3746. S2CID 144605837. ^ "The New Observer" (PDF) . Justinwyllie.net. Archived from the original (PDF) on 16 September 2012 . Retrieved 12 November 2012 . ^ Sima Barmania (26 October 2011). "Why Paulo Freire's "Pedagogy of the Oppressed" is just as relevant today as ever". Blogs.independent.co.uk. Archived from the original on 30 April 2012 . Retrieved 12 November 2012 . ^ "Paulo Freire and informal education". Infed.org. 29 May 2012 . Retrieved 12 November 2012 . ^ Kwak, Duck-Joo; Kato, Morimichi; Hung, Ruyu (18 December 2019). The Confucian Concept of Learning: Revisited for East Asian Humanistic Pedagogies. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-351-03836-2. ^ Lehrkr¤fte im Nationalsozialismus ^ Peter Broucek "Milit¤rischer Widerstand: Studien zur ¶sterreichischen Staatsgesinnung und NS-Abwehr" (2008) pp 408. ^ Christoph Thurner "The CASSIA Spy Ring in World War II Austria: A History of the OSS's Maier-Messner Group" (2017), pp 14. ^ The school as an institution of Nazi education ^ Martin, Jane. "What Should We Do with a Hidden Curriculum When We Find One?" The Hidden Curriculum and Moral Education. Ed. Giroux, Henry and David Purpel. Berkeley, California: McCutchan Publishing Corporation, 1983. 122''139. ^ Giroux, Henry and Anthony Penna. "Social Education in the Classroom: The Dynamics of the Hidden Curriculum." The Hidden Curriculum and Moral Education. Ed. Giroux, Henry and David Purpel. Berkeley, California: McCutchan Publishing Corporation, 1983. 100''121. ^ Cook, DJ (2010). "Learning Setting-Generalized Activity Models for Smart Spaces". IEEE Intell Syst. 2010 (99): 1. doi:10.1109/MIS.2010.112. PMC 3068197 . PMID 21461133. ^ Eglossary, definition. Retrieved 5 April 2016 ^ Illeris, Knud (2004). The three dimensions of learning. Malabar, Fla: Krieger Pub. Co. ISBN 9781575242583. ^ Ormrod, Jeanne (2012). Human learning (6th ed.). Boston: Pearson. ISBN 9780132595186. ^ a b Kaplan, Andreas M.; Haenlein, Michael (2016). "Higher education and the digital revolution: About MOOCs, SPOCs, social media, and the Cookie Monster". Business Horizons. 59 (4): 441''50. doi:10.1016/j.bushor.2016.03.008. ^ Honeyman, M; Miller, G (December 1993). "Agriculture distance education: A valid alternative for higher education?" (PDF) . Proceedings of the 20th Annual National Agricultural Education Research Meeting: 67''73. ^ Distance Education Accrediting Commission. "CHEA-Recognized Scope of Accreditation." "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 24 December 2016 . Retrieved 4 November 2015 . CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) . April 2013. ^ Tabor, Sharon W (Spring 2007). Narrowing the Distance: Implementing a Hybrid Learning Model. Quarterly Review of Distance Education. 8. IAP. pp. 48''49. ISBN 9787774570793. ISSN 1528-3518 . Retrieved 23 January 2011 . ^ Vaughan, Dr Norman D. (2010). "Blended Learning". In Cleveland-Innes, MF; Garrison, DR (eds.). An Introduction to Distance Education: Understanding Teaching and Learning in a New Era. Taylor & Francis. p. 165. ISBN 978-0-415-99598-6 . Retrieved 23 January 2011 . ^ a b c d e UNESCO (2019). Empowering students for just societies: a handbook for secondary school teachers. UNESCO. ISBN 978-92-3-100340-0. ^ a b Kincheloe, Joe (2008). Critical Pedagogy Primer. New York: Peter Lang. ISBN 9781433101823. ^ Kincheloe, Joe L.; Horn, Raymond A., eds. (2007). The Praeger Handbook of Education and Psychology. p. 552. ISBN 978-0313331237. ^ Jones, Leo. (2007). The Student-Centered Classroom. Cambridge University Press. ^ Rogers, C. R. (1983). Freedom to Learn for the '80s. New York: Charles E. Merrill Publishing Company, A Bell & Howell Company. ^ Pedersen, S., & Liu, M. (2003). Teachers' beliefs about issues in the implementation of a student-centered learning environment. Educational Technology Research and Development, 51(2), 57''76. ^ Hannafin, M. J., & Hannafin, K. M. (2010). Cognition and student-centered, web-based learning: Issues and implications for research and theory. Learning and instruction in the digital age (pp. 11''23). Springer US. ^ Young, Lynne E.; Paterson, Barbara L. (2007). Teaching Nursing: Developing a Student-centered Learning Environment. p. 5. ISBN 978-0781757720. ^ "Learning from Denmark". Taipeitimes.com. 22 March 2006 . Retrieved 16 April 2021 . ^ "P...dagog" [Pedagogue]. UddannelsesGuiden (in Danish). Ministry of Children and Education . Retrieved 1 September 2019 . ^ Educational Guide '' Denmark P...dagog '' UddannelsesGuiden.dk. ^ "Front Page". The Official Site of The Labor Union of Pedagogues. Labor Union of Pedagogues . Retrieved 27 May 2013 . ^ "Ezekre a tanri szakokra jelentkeztek a legt¶bben [English: These Teaching Areas Proved The Most Popular]". Eduline. 19 April 2013 . Retrieved 27 May 2013 . ^ "A new pedagogy". Kathmandupost.ekantipur.com . Retrieved 8 June 2018 . ^ "What Is Differentiated Instruction? | Scholastic". Scholastic.com . Retrieved 8 June 2018 . ^ "Understanding Differentiated Instruction: Building a Foundation for Leadership". Ascd.org . Retrieved 8 June 2018 . ^ "Howard Gardner". Harvard Graduate School of Education . Retrieved 8 June 2018 . ^ "Multiple Intelligences Theory (Gardner) '' Learning Theories". Learning Theories. 17 July 2014 . Retrieved 8 June 2018 . ^ "Gardner's Multiple Intelligences". Tecweb.org . Retrieved 8 June 2018 . Sources [ edit ] This article incorporates text from a free content work. Licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0 IGO Text taken from Empowering students for just societies: a handbook for secondary school teachers, UNESCO, UNESCO. UNESCO. To learn how to add open license text to Wikipedia articles, please see this how-to page. For information on reusing text from Wikipedia, please see the terms of use. Further reading [ edit ] Bruner, J. S. (1960). The Process of Education, Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press.Bruner, J. S. (1966). Toward a Theory of Instruction. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Belkapp Press.Bruner, J. S. (1971). The Relevance of Education. New York, NY: NortonFreire, P. (1970). Pedagogy of the Oppressed. New York: ContinuumMontessori, M. (1910). Antropologia Pedagogica.Montessori, M. (1921). Manuale di Pedagogia Scientifica.Montessori, M. (1934). Psico Geom(C)tria.Montessori, M. (1934). Psico Aritm(C)tica.Piaget, J. (1926). The Language and Thought of the Child. London: Routledge & Kegan.Karl Rosenkranz (1848). Pedagogics as a System. Translated 1872 by Anna C. Brackett, R.P. Studley CompanyKarl Rosenkranz (1899). The philosophy of education. D. Appleton and Co.Vygotsky, L. (1962). Thought and Language. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press.
  • Abolitionist Teaching Network
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  • Willie Horton - Wikipedia
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    • American murderer
    • William R. Horton (born August 12, 1951) is an American convicted felon who, while serving a life sentence for murder (without the possibility of parole),[1] was the beneficiary of a Massachusetts weekend furlough program. He did not return from his furlough, and ultimately committed assault, armed robbery, and rape before being captured and sentenced in Maryland where he remains incarcerated.
    • The controversy over Horton's furlough became a major issue in the 1988 presidential campaign, as George H. W. Bush brought him up frequently during his campaign. A prominent PAC ad for Bush about Horton has been widely characterized as a case of dog-whistle politics.[2][3][4][5][6]
    • Criminal activity and incarceration [ edit ] On October 26, 1974, in Lawrence, Massachusetts, Horton and two accomplices robbed Joseph Fournier, a white 17-year-old gas station attendant, and then fatally stabbed Fournier 19 times after he had cooperated by handing over all of the money in the cash register. His body was stuffed in a trash can so his feet were jammed up against his chin. Fournier died from blood loss.[7] Horton was convicted of murder, sentenced to life imprisonment without the possibility of parole, and incarcerated at the Northeastern Correctional Center in Massachusetts.[citation needed ]
    • On June 6, 1986, Horton was released as part of a weekend furlough program, but did not return. On April 3, 1987, in Oxon Hill, Maryland, Horton twice raped a woman after pistol-whipping, knifing, binding, and gagging her fianc(C). He then stole the car belonging to the man he had assaulted. He was later shot by Corporal Paul J. Lopez of the Prince George's County Police Department and captured by Corporal Yusuf A. Muhammad of the same department after a pursuit. On October 20, Horton was sentenced in Maryland to two consecutive life terms plus 85 years. The sentencing judge, Vincent J. Femia, refused to return Horton to Massachusetts, saying, "I'm not prepared to take the chance that Mr. Horton might again be furloughed or otherwise released. This man should never draw a breath of free air again."[8]
    • On April 18, 1996, Horton was transferred to the Jessup Correctional Institution (then called the Maryland House of Correction Annex), a maximum security prison in Jessup, Maryland, where he remains.[9]
    • Legislative and political background [ edit ] Democratic Presidential candidate Michael Dukakis was the governor of Massachusetts at the time of Horton's release, and while he did not start the furlough program, he had supported it as a method of criminal rehabilitation. The state inmate furlough program, originally signed into law by Republican Governor Francis Sargent in 1972, excluded convicted first-degree murderers. However, in 1973, the Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court ruled that this right extended to first-degree murderers, because the law specifically did not exclude them.[10][11] The Massachusetts legislature quickly passed a bill prohibiting furloughs for such inmates. However, in 1976, Dukakis vetoed this bill arguing it would "cut the heart out of efforts at inmate rehabilitation."[12]
    • The program remained in effect through the intervening term of Governor Edward J. King, and was abolished during Dukakis' final term of office on April 28, 1988, after Dukakis had decided to run for President. This abolition occurred only after the Lawrence Eagle-Tribune had run 175 stories about the furlough program and won a Pulitzer Prize.[13]
    • Horton was later interviewed in the periodical, The Nation:
    • The fact is, my name is not 'Willie.' It's part of the myth of the case. The name irks me. It was created to play on racial stereotypes: big, ugly, dumb, violent, black '-- 'Willie'. I resent that. They created a fictional character '-- who seemed believable, but who did not exist. They stripped me of my identity, distorted the facts, and robbed me of my constitutional rights.[14]
    • Horton in the 1988 presidential campaign [ edit ] The first person to mention the Massachusetts furlough program in the 1988 presidential campaign was Democratic Senator Al Gore. During a debate before the New York primary, Gore took issue with the furlough program. However, he did not specifically mention the Horton incident or even his name, instead asking a general question about the Massachusetts furlough program.[15]
    • Republicans eagerly picked up the Horton issue after Dukakis won the Democratic nomination. In June 1988, Republican candidate George H.W. Bush seized on the Horton case, bringing it up repeatedly in campaign speeches. Bush's campaign manager Lee Atwater said: "By the time we're finished, they're going to wonder whether Willie Horton is Dukakis' running mate."[16]
    • Campaign staffer James Pinkerton returned with reams of material that Atwater told him to reduce to a 3-by-5-inch (8 cm — 13 cm) index card, telling him "I'm giving you one thing: You can use both sides of the 3—5 card." Pinkerton discovered the furlough issue by watching the Felt Forum debate. On May 25, 1988, Republican consultants met in Paramus, New Jersey, holding a focus group of "Reagan Democrats" who had voted for Ronald Reagan in 1984.[17] These focus groups convinced Atwater and the other Republican consultants that they should 'go negative' against Dukakis. Further information regarding the furlough came from aide Andrew Card, a Massachusetts native whom President George W. Bush later named as his Chief of Staff.[18]
    • Over the Fourth of July weekend in 1988, Atwater attended a motorcyclists' convention in Luray, Virginia. Two couples were talking about the Horton story as featured in the July issue of Reader's Digest. Atwater joined them without mentioning who he was. Later that night, a focus group in Alabama had turned completely against Dukakis when presented the information about Horton's furlough. Atwater used this occurrence to argue the necessity of pounding Dukakis about the furlough issue.[18]
    • Fall campaign [ edit ] Beginning on September 21, 1988, the Americans for Bush arm of the National Security Political Action Committee (NSPAC), under the auspices of Floyd Brown, began running a campaign ad entitled "Weekend Passes", using the Horton case to attack Dukakis. The ad was produced by media consultant Larry McCarthy, who had previously worked for Roger Ailes. After clearing the ad with television stations, McCarthy added a mug shot of Horton.[19] The ad was run as an independent expenditure, separate from the Bush campaign, which claimed not to have had any role in its production.[20] The ad referred to Horton as "Willie", although he later said he had always gone by William.[21]
    • On October 5, 1988, a day after the "Weekend Passes" ad was taken off the airwaves and the day of the Bentsen''Quayle debate, the Bush campaign ran its own ad, "Revolving Door", which also attacked Dukakis over the weekend furlough program. While the advertisement did not mention Horton or feature his photograph, it depicted a variety of men walking in and out of prison through a revolving door.[22]
    • The controversy escalated when Vice Presidential candidate Lloyd Bentsen and former Democratic presidential candidate and civil rights leader Jesse Jackson called the "Revolving Door" ad racist,[23] a charge which was denied by Bush and campaign staff.[24][25]
    • Through most of the campaign, the Horton ad was seen as focusing on issues of criminal justice, with neither the candidates nor journalists mentioning a racial component.[26] However, near the end of the presidential campaign'--on October 21, 1988'--Democratic primary runner-up Jesse Jackson accused the ad's creators of playing upon presumed fears of some voters, in particular those harboring stereotyped fears of blacks as criminals. From that point on, race was a substantial part of the media coverage of the ad itself and the campaign. Some candidates continued to deny it and most commentators at the time felt it was not.[26] Academics have noted that the alleged racial overtone of the ad was a key aspect of the way the ad was remembered and later studied.[26]
    • On October 22, in an attempt to counter-attack, Dukakis' campaign ran an ad about a convicted heroin dealer named Angel Medrano who raped and killed a pregnant mother of two after escaping from a federal correctional halfway house.[24][27]
    • In 1990, the Ohio Democratic Party and a group called "Black Elected Democrats of Ohio" filed a complaint with the Federal Election Commission alleging that NSPAC had coordinated or cooperated with the Bush campaign in airing the ad, which would make it an illegal in kind campaign contribution. Investigation by the FEC, including deposition of officials from both organizations, revealed indirect connections between McCarthy and the Bush campaign (such as his having previously worked for Ailes), but found no direct evidence of wrongdoing, and the investigation reached an impasse and was eventually closed with no finding of any violation of campaign finance laws.[20]
    • Robin Toner of The New York Times wrote in 1990 that Republicans and Democrats, while disagreeing on the merits of the ad itself, agreed it was "devastating to Dukakis."[28] Dukakis said in 2012 that while he initially tried to ignore the ad during the 1988 campaign, two months later he "realized that I was getting killed with this stuff."[29]
    • In December 2018, after Bush's death, the ad was again highlighted by political commentators. Ann Coulter described his Willie Horton ad as "the greatest campaign commercial in political history", claiming that it "clearly and forcefully highlighted the two presidential candidates' diametrically opposed views" on crime.[30] Many other commentators remarked that the Bush presidency, and back to the Horton ad of the campaign, stoked racial animosity. Many commentators have pointed to race-bating or similar dog whistle in the ad, and the fact that he was black is still a key part of how the ad is still discussed.[31][32][33][34]
    • See also [ edit ] Revolving Door (advertisement)Daisy (advertisement)SwiftboatingWayne DuMondMaurice ClemmonsReferences [ edit ] ^ "Prison furloughs survive campaign flap over Willie Horton". Milwaukee Journal. Associated Press. November 6, 1989. ^ Haney-Lopez, Ian (2013). Dog whistle politics: how coded racial appeals have reinvented racism and wrecked the middle class. Oxford University Press. p. 106. ISBN 978-0-19-022925-2. OCLC 908967433. ^ Withers, Rachel (December 1, 2018). "George H.W. Bush's "Willie Horton" ad will always be the reference point for dog-whistle racism". Vox . Retrieved June 11, 2020 . ^ Criss, Doug (November 1, 2018). "This is the 30-year-old Willie Horton ad everybody is talking about today". CNN . Retrieved June 11, 2020 . ^ Baker, Peter (December 3, 2018). "Bush Made Willie Horton an Issue in 1988, and the Racial Scars Are Still Fresh". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331 . Retrieved June 11, 2020 . ^ Scott, Eugene (December 3, 2018). "How the Willie Horton ad factors into George H.W. Bush's legacy". The Washington Post. ^ Simon, Roger (1 October 1990). "The killer and the candidate: How Willie Horton and George Bush rewrote to rules of political advertising". Regardie's Magazine. ^ Bidinotto, Robert (July 1988). "Getting away with murder". Reader's Digest. ^ "Inmate locator". Maryland Department of Public Safety and Correctional Services . Retrieved March 31, 2014 . ^ "Devlin v. Commissioner of Correction". 1973. 364 Mass. 435 (1973). 305 N.E.2d 847. ^ Toner, Robin (5 July 1988). "Prison Furloughs in Massachusetts Threaten Dukakis Record on Crime". New York Times . Retrieved 31 May 2015 . ^ Edsall, Thomas Byrne; Edsall, Mary D. (1992). Chain Reaction: The impact of race, rights, and taxes on American politics . W. W. Norton and Company. p. 222. ISBN 0393309037 '' via Internet Archive. cut the heart out of efforts at inmate rehabilitation ^ Porter, Bruce (March 1995). "So What? Pulitzer Prize-winning expos(C)s and their sometimes dubious consequences". Columbia Journalism Review. Archived from the original on 28 March 2008 . Retrieved 7 September 2015 . ^ Newton, Adam Zachary (1995). Narrative Ethics . Harvard University Press. p. 324. ISBN 9780674600874. ^ "Did Gore hatch Horton?". Slate. November 1, 1999. ^ Simon, Roger (November 11, 1990). "How a murderer and rapist became the Bush campaign's most valuable player". The Baltimore Sun. ^ Simon, Roger (May 19, 2015). "The GOP and Willie Horton: Together again". Politico. ^ a b Germond, Jack W.; Jules Witcover (1989). Whose Broad Stripes and Bright Stars: The Trivial Pursuit of the Presidency, 1988 . Warner Books. pp. 159''161. ISBN 0-446-51424-1. ^ "George Bush and Willie Horton". The New York Times. 4 November 1988 . Retrieved 4 August 2015 . ^ a b "Independent Ads: The National Security Political Action Committee "Willie Horton " " . Retrieved 9 September 2008 . ^ Rodricks, Dan (12 August 1993). "Trying to find the real Willie Horton". The Baltimore Sun . Retrieved 4 January 2015 . ^ "Candidate ads: 1988 '' George Bush" . Retrieved September 8, 2008 . ^ Rosenthal, Andrew (October 24, 1988). "Foes accuse Bush campaign of inflaming racial tension". New York Times . Retrieved April 4, 2015 . ^ a b Dowd, Maureen (25 October 1988). "Bush Says Dukakis's Desperation Prompted Accusations of Racism". The New York Times . Retrieved 8 September 2008 . ^ Blodgett, Todd (December 7, 2018). "I had an insider view to the Willie Horton story. The real issue wasn't race". Des Moines Register . Retrieved December 21, 2018 . ^ a b c Mendelberg, Tali. "The Race Card" (PDF) . ^ Love, Keith (October 22, 1988). "MEDIA POLITICS : Both Campaigns Launch Ads on Prison Furlough Issue". Los Angeles Times . Retrieved December 21, 2018 . ^ Toner, Robin (December 10, 1990). "POLITICAL MEMO; Issue of Job Quotas Sure to Affect Debate on Civil Rights in the 90's". The New York Times . Retrieved June 27, 2019 . ^ Dukakis, Michael (June 15, 2012). "Dukakis's Regret". New York Magazine (Interview). Interviewed by Eric Benson . Retrieved June 27, 2019 . ^ "BUSH'S FINEST 30 SECONDS: THE WILLIE HORTON AD". Ann Coulter. December 5, 2018 . Retrieved December 6, 2018 . ^ Greenberg, David (December 1, 2018). "Is History Being Too Kind to George H.W. Bush? The 41st president put self-interest over principle time and time again". Politico. ^ Heer, Jeet (December 3, 2018). "The Whitewashing of George H. W. Bush". New Republic. ^ Baker, Peter (December 3, 2018). "Bush Made Willie Horton an Issue in 1988, and the Racial Scars Are Still Fresh". The New York Times. ^ Berlatsky, Noah (December 4, 2018). "George H.W. Bush wasn't Trump '-- but from Willie Horton to the AIDS crisis, we shouldn't whitewash his legacy". NBC News. External links [ edit ] "Independent Ads: The National Security Political Action Committee "Willie Horton " ". " " Willie Horton" advertisement". 1988 '' via American Museum of the Moving Image. Simon, Roger (11 November 1990). "How a murderer and rapist became the Bush campaign's most valuable player". The Baltimore Sun. Walton, Anthony (1989). "Willie Horton and me". New York Times.
  • Kimberl(C) Williams Crenshaw - Wikipedia
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    • Wed, 13 Oct 2021 00:45
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    • American lawyer and civil rights advocate
    • Kimberl(C) Williams Crenshaw (; born 1959) is an American lawyer, civil rights advocate, philosopher, and a leading scholar of critical race theory. She is a full-time professor at the UCLA School of Law and Columbia Law School, where she specializes in race and gender issues.[1] Crenshaw is also the founder of Columbia Law School's Center for Intersectionality and Social Policy Studies (CISPS) and the African American Policy Forum (AAPF), as well as the president of the Berlin-based Center for Intersectional Justice (CIJ).[2]
    • Crenshaw is known for the introduction and development of intersectionality, the theory of how overlapping or intersecting social identities, particularly minority identities, relate to systems and structures of oppression, domination, or discrimination.[3] Her scholarship was essential in the development of intersectional feminism which examines the overlapping systems of oppression and discrimination to which women are subject due to their ethnicity, sexuality and economic background.[4]
    • Early life and education [ edit ] Crenshaw was born in 1959 in Canton, Ohio,[5][6] to African American[7] parents, Marian and Walter Clarence Crenshaw, Jr, both teachers.[8] Her parents had a history in the desegregation movement; her mother helped desegregate a paddling pool.[8] She attended Canton McKinley High School, as well as a Christian fundamentalist school where she experienced racism.[8] She represented her school in debating and spelling competitions and aspired to be a lawyer from a young age.[8]
    • In 1981, Crenshaw received a bachelor's degree in government and Africana studies from Cornell University,[9] where she was a member of the Quill and Dagger senior honor society.[10] She received a J.D. from Harvard Law School in 1984,[11] and the next year, an LL.M. from the University of Wisconsin Law School, where she was a William H. Hastie Fellow. She was law clerk to Wisconsin Supreme Court Judge Shirley Abrahamson.[12][13]
    • Career [ edit ] Crenshaw is one of the founders of the field of critical race theory. While at Harvard Law School, she was one of the founders of the Critical Race Theory Workshop, which originated the term.[14]She explained to Vanity Fair:
    • We were critically engaging law but with a focus on race [...] So we wanted critical to be in it, race to be in it. And we put theory in to signify that we weren't just looking at civil rights practice. It was how to think, how to see, how to read, how to grapple with how law has created and sustained race'--our particular kind of race and racism'--in American society.[15]
    • Following completion of her Master of Laws degree, Crenshaw joined the faculty of the UCLA School of Law in 1986, where she lectured on critical race theory, civil rights, and constitutional law.[9] At UCLA she currently teaches four classes with no requisites; her courses are Advanced Critical Race Theory; Civil Rights; Intersectional Perspectives on Race, Gender and the Criminalization of Women & Girls; and Race, Law and Representation.[16] In 1991 and 1994, she was elected professor of the year by matriculating students.[17] In 1995, Crenshaw was appointed as full professor at Columbia Law School, where she is the founder and director of the Center for Intersectionality & Social Policy Studies, established in 2011.[12][17][18] At Columbia, Crenshaw's courses include an Intersectionalities Workshop and an Intersectionalities Workshop centered around Civil Rights.[19]
    • In 1996, she co-founded, and is the executive director of, the nonprofit think tank and information clearinghouse, the African American Policy Forum, which focuses on "dismantling structural inequality" and "advancing and expanding racial justice, gender equality, and the indivisibility of all human rights, both in the U.S. and internationally."[20][21] Its mission is to build bridges between scholarly research and public discourse in addressing inequality and discrimination. Crenshaw has been awarded the Fulbright Chair for Latin America in Brazil, and in 2008, she was awarded an in-residence fellowship at the Center of Advanced Behavioral Studies at Stanford University.
    • In 1991, she assisted the legal team representing Anita Hill at the U.S. Senate confirmation hearings for Supreme Court Justice Clarence Thomas.[22]
    • In 2001, she wrote the background paper on Race and Gender Discrimination for the United Nations World Conference Against Racism (WCAR), helped to facilitate the addition of gender in its Conference Declaration, and served as a member of the National Science Foundation's Committee to Research Violence Against Women and the National Research Council panel on Research on Violence Against Women. Crenshaw was a member of the Domestic Strategy Group at the Aspen Institute from 1992 to 1995,[23] the Women's Media Initiative,[24] and was a regular commentator on NPR's The Tavis Smiley Show.[25]
    • Influence [ edit ] Her work has been cited as influential in the drafting of the equality clause in the Constitution of South Africa.[21]
    • In 2017, Crenshaw gave an hour-long lecture to a maximum-capacity crowd of attendees at Rapaporte Treasure Hall. She explained the role intersectionality plays in modern-day society.[26] After a three-day celebration of her work, Brandeis University President Ron Liebowitz presented Crenshaw with the Toby Gittler award at a ceremony following a lecture in December.[27]
    • She was invited to moderate a Sexual Harassment Panel hosted by Women in Animation and The Animation Guild, Local 839. Crenshaw discussed the history of harassment in the workplace and transitioned the discussion to how it plays a role in today's work environments. The other panelists with Crenshaw agreed there have been many protective measures placed to combat sexual harassment in the workplace but many issues remain to be resolved for a complete settlement of the problem at hand.[28]
    • She contributed the piece "Traffic at the Crossroads: Multiple Oppressions" to the 2003 anthology Sisterhood Is Forever: The Women's Anthology for a New Millennium, edited by Robin Morgan.[29]
    • She attended the Women of the World festival that took place from 8''13 March 2016 at the Southbank Centre in London, England.[30] She delivered a keynote speech on the unique challenges facing women of colour when it comes to the struggle for gender equality, racial justice and well-being. A key challenge is what Crenshaw says is police brutality against black women. She highlighted the #SayHerName campaign, which is aimed at uplifting the stories of black women killed by the police.[31]
    • Intersectionality [ edit ] Crenshaw introduced the theory of intersectionality in her 1989 paper, "Demarginalizing the Intersection of Race and Sex: A Black Feminist Critique of Antidiscrimination Doctrine, Feminist Theory and Antiracist Politics".[33][7] Influenced by black feminist criticism, the main argument of the paper is that the experience of being a black woman cannot be understood in terms of being black and of being a woman considered independently, but must include the interactions between the two, which frequently reinforce each other.[33][34]
    • According to Crenshaw, the concept of intersectionality predates her work and is congruous with the ideas of African American women from "every generation[,] every intellectual sphere and every political moment", citing women who articulated it before as Anna Julia Cooper, Maria Stewart, Angela Davis and Deborah King.[3] Her inspiration for the theory started during her college studies, when she realized that the gender aspect of race was extremely underdeveloped, although the school she was attending offered many classes that addressed both race and gender issues. In particular, women were only discussed in literature and poetry classes while men were also discussed in serious politics and economics.
    • Using the metaphor of intersecting roads to describe the merging of oppression, Crenshaw highlighted how black women were treated by legal systems at the time, being seen as equal to both white women and black men, in regards to their sex and race, respectively; thus their claims of discrimination on the basis of race and sex were dismissed by the courts.[33][35] Crenshaw's analysis of the law's invoking and creation of social identities aligns her with the broader intellectual tradition in critical race theory which discusses the same idea.[33]
    • Crenshaw realized the idea of racialized sexism and sexualized racism. She broke down intersectional analysis into three forms: 1. Structural, which addresses racism and patriarchy in association with violence against women. 2. Political, which addresses the intersection of anti-race organizing and feminist organizing. 3. Representational, which addresses the intersection of racial and gender stereotypes. Crenshaw's participation in paradigms of identity which are mutually exclusive is one of rethinking identity politics from within, in general through systemic legal exclusions.[36]
    • Crenshaw often refers to the case DeGraffenreid v. General Motors as an inspiration in writing, interviews, and lectures. In DeGraffenreid v. General Motors, Emma Degraffenreid and four other African-American women argued they were receiving compound discrimination excluding them from employment opportunities. They contended that although women were eligible for office and secretarial jobs, in practice such positions only were offered to white women, barring African-American women from seeking employment in the company. The courts weighed the allegations of race and gender discrimination separately, finding that the employment of African-American male factory workers disproved racial discrimination, and the employment of white female office workers disproved gender discrimination. The court declined to consider compound discrimination, and dismissed the case.[3]
    • Crenshaw also discusses intersectionality in connection to her experience as part of the 1991 legal team for Anita Hill, the woman who accused then-US Supreme Court Nominee Clarence Thomas of sexual harassment.[37] The case drew two crowds expressing contrasting views: white feminists in support of Hill and the opposing members of the African-American community that supported Clarence Thomas. The two lines of argument focused on the rights of women and Hill's claimed experience of being violated as a woman, on the one hand, and on the other the appeal to believe Thomas, or perhaps believe Hill but forgive Thomas or turn a blind eye to his conduct due to his opportunity to become only the second African American to serve on the United States Supreme Court.
    • Crenshaw argued that with these two groups rising up against one another during this case, Anita Hill lost her voice as a black woman. She had been unintentionally chosen to support the women's side of things, silencing her racial contribution to the issue. "It was like one of these moments where you literally feel that you have been kicked out of your community, all because you are trying to introduce and talk about the way that African American women have experienced sexual harassment and violence. It was a defining moment." "Many women who talk about the Anita Hill thing," Crenshaw adds, "they celebrate what's happened with women in general'.... So sexual harassment is now recognized; what's not doing as well is the recognition of black women's unique experiences with discrimination."
    • Crenshaw's theory of intersectionality has been adopted on a worldwide scale and has expanded the study of oppression.[33][35] Professor of law Devon W. Carbado described the idea as "enormously influential", noting its usage in multiple disciplines, as well as its global adoption by scholars, human rights activists, community organizers, political figures, and lawyers alike.[33]
    • In Gender & Society, published in 2012 by Christine E. Bose, she expands on how Crenshaw's theory of intersectionality has and still is being applied on a global level. According to Bose, "U.S. scholars should not be surprised that an Intersectional approach is useful to European, Asian or African scholars studying inequalities in nations with diverse native populations or polarized class structures, or with increasing numbers of migrants and contract workers from other countries" (Bose 68). In the United States, intersectionality is rarely thought of as a policy issue, however, "feminists in European Union (EU) countries, where gender mainstreaming is common and where cross-national equality policies are being developed, view intersectionality as directly useful for such policies and considerably better than approaches that tend to foster a sense of competing oppressions" (Kantola and Nousiainen 2009). The problem now, according to Choo and Ferree, is how an intersectional analysis should be carried out. In 2010, they identified "three different understandings of intersectionality that have been used in sociological research, with each producing distinct methodological approaches to analyze inequalities. Their typology of group-centered, process-centered, and system-centered practices provides a useful framework for examining the global usage of intersectionality, and a way of thinking intersectionally about variations in political approaches to gender". Since then, studies surrounding Crenshaw's original theory of intersectionality, combined with the frameworks outlined by Choo and Ferree, have continued to develop on a global level.[38]
    • My Brother's Keeper [ edit ] A nationwide initiative to open up a ladder of opportunities to youth males and males of color.[clarification needed ][39] Crenshaw and the other participants of the African American Policy Forum (AAPF) have expressed the opinion in various media that although the initiative may have good intentions, it works in a way that excludes girls and in particular young girls of color. To address this problem, the AAPF started the campaign #WHYWECANTWAIT for the inclusion in the "My Brother's Keeper" initiative of all youth, including girls and boys of color. This campaign has received a lot of support from all over letters signed by men of color, letters signed by women of color and letters signed by allies that believe in the cause.[citation needed ]
    • In an interview on the Laura Flanders Show Crenshaw explained that the program was introduced as response to the widespread grief from the African-American community after the acquittal of George Zimmerman in the case of his shooting and killing of Trayvon Martin, an unarmed African-American teenage boy who had been in an altercation with his shooter. (The jury believed that Zimmerman acted in self-defense.[40]) She describes the program as "feel-good", and fatherly initiative but does not believe that it is a significant or structural program that will help fight the rollback of civil rights; the initiative will not provide the kinds of things that will really make a difference. She believes that because women and girls of color are a part of the same communities and disadvantages as the under-privileged males that are focused in the initiative, that in order to make it an effective program for the communities it needs to include all members of the community girls and boys alike.
    • #Why we can't wait: Women of Color Urging Inclusion in "My Brother's Keeper"June 17, 2014 '' a letter from more than 1000 girls and women of colorThe letter is signed by women of all ages and a variety of backgrounds including high-school teens, professional actors, civil rights activists, and university professors commending President Obama on the efforts of the White House, private philanthropy, and social justice organizations to urge the inclusion of young women and girls. The realignment would be important to reflect the values of inclusion, equal opportunity and shared fate that have propelled our historic struggle for racial justice moving forward.
    • May 30, 2014 '' a letter of 200 Concerned Black Men and Other Men of Color calling for the Inclusion of Women and Girls in "My Brothers Keeper"[41]The letter is signed by a multitude of diverse men with different lifestyles to include scholars, recently incarcerated, taxi drivers, pastors, college students, fathers of sons, fathers of daughters and more. All the men believing that the girls within the communities that these men share homes, schools, recreational areas share a fate with one another and believe that the initiative is lacking in focus if that focus does not include both genders.
    • In 2014, President Barack Obama launched a program called "My Brother's Keeper". This program cost around $200 million and was a five-year program to support boys and young men of color, mostly African-American and Hispanic, by providing them with the opportunity for mentorships, internships, summer jobs and more. In a White House Summit address concerning working families, President Obama announced "new commitment to the program" with the support of corporations, schools and assorted nonprofits.[42] In his speech he mentioned "all the heroic single moms out there." He also stated, "ANYTHING that makes life harder for women makes life harder for families and makes life harder for children," but the program lacked to address this. In response to this, Kimberl(C) Crenshaw wrote a New York Times article titled "The Girls Obama Forgot".[43] In her article, she elaborates on how "My Brother's Keeper" is "the most significant contradiction of his efforts to remain a friend to women while navigating the tricky terrain of race." The program lacked the representation of women of color who were a source of his main supporters during his campaign for presidency. In Obama's speech he noted how "boys who grew up without a father are five times more likely to live in poverty and commit crime." In Crenshaw's article, she felt that there needed to be more representation of these boy's sisters and mothers. "He noted that boys who grew up without a father were more likely to be poor. More likely than whom? Certainly not their sisters, who are growing up in the same households, attending the same underfunded schools and living in the same neighborhoods." She claimed that the White House had this false belief that black men were better off than black women; an idea against which Crenshaw argued vociferously.[44]
    • Equality Amendment [ edit ] In December 2019 Crenshaw and legal scholar Catherine MacKinnon introduced a new version of the Equal Rights Amendment.[45] This new version is known as the Equality Amendment and is discussed at length in their essay, "Reconstituting the Future: The Equality Amendment."[45]
    • Awards and honors [ edit ] 1985: William H. Hastie Fellow1991: "Professor of the Year," UCLA School of Law1994: "Professor of the Year," UCLA School of Law2007: Fulbright Chair for Latin America in Brazil[12]2008: Alphonse Fletcher Fellow[46]2008: Fellow, Center for Advanced Behavioral Studies in the Social Sciences, Stanford University[46]2015: No. 1 "Most Inspiring Feminist," Ms. Magazine[12]2015: "Power 100," Ebony Magazine[47]2016: Outstanding Scholar Award, Fellows of the American Bar Foundation[48]2017: Joseph B. and Toby Gittler Prize, Brandeis University[49]2020: Doctor honoris causa, KU Leuven (Belgium)[50][51]2021: Elected member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences[52]Selected works [ edit ] Crenshaw has published works on civil rights, black feminist legal theory, race, racism, and the law.
    • Critical Race Theory: The Key Writings That Formed the Movement (editor), 1995. ISBN 1565842715, OCLC 489927296."Mapping the Margins: Intersectionality, Identity Politics and Violence against Women of Color," in The Feminist Philosophy Reader, Alison Bailey and Chris Cuomo (eds.). New York: McGraw-Hill, 2008. 279''309.Reaffirming Racism: The faulty logic of Colorblindness, Remedy and Diversity, 2013 ISBN 9781595588838, OCLC 807025281.Black Girls Matter: Pushed Out, Overpoliced and Underprotected, African American Policy Forum, 2016.[53]The Race Track: Understanding and Challenging Structural Racism, 2017. ISBN 9781595588821, OCLC 1063635935.On Intersectionality: Essential Writings of Kimberl(C) Crenshaw, 2017. ISBN 9781620972700, OCLC 1015981627.Seeing Race Again: Countering Colorblindness across the Disciplines, 2019. ISBN 9780520300996, OCLC 1050455449References [ edit ] ^ "Reunion Renews Commitment to William H. Hastie Fellowship Legacy | University of Wisconsin Law School". law.wisc.edu . Retrieved March 10, 2016 . ^ "Who we are". www.intersectionaljustice.org . Retrieved July 12, 2018 . ^ a b c Adewunmi, Bim (April 2, 2014). "Kimberl(C) Crenshaw on intersectionality: "I wanted to come up with an everyday metaphor that anyone could use " ". New Statesman . Retrieved December 27, 2018 . ^ Miller, Hayley (August 11, 2017). "Kimberl(C) Crenshaw Explains The Power Of Intersectional Feminism In 1 Minute". Huffington Post . Retrieved December 16, 2017 . ^ Ritzer, George; Stepnisky, Jeffrey (January 23, 2017). Modern Sociological Theory. SAGE Publishing. p. 430. ISBN 978-1-5063-2561-3. ^ Griffin, Gabriele, ed. (2017). "Crenshaw, Kimberl(C)". A Dictionary of Gender Studies. 1. Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/acref/9780191834837.001.0001. ^ a b Crenshaw, Kimberle (1989). "Demarginalizing the Intersection of Race and Sex: A Black Feminist Critique of Antidiscrimination Doctrine, Feminist Theory and Antiracist Politics". University of Chicago Legal Forum . Retrieved September 15, 2021 . ^ a b c d "Kimberl(C) Crenshaw: the woman who revolutionised feminism '' and landed at the heart of the culture wars". The Guardian . Retrieved May 9, 2021 . ^ a b "Race, gender scholar Crenshaw on campus Oct. 16''21 | Cornell Chronicle". news.cornell.edu . Retrieved March 10, 2016 . ^ "The Cornell Daily Sun 31 October 1980 '-- The Cornell Daily Sun". cdsun.library.cornell.edu . Retrieved June 10, 2020 . ^ "Kimberl(C) Williams Crenshaw | Faculty | Columbia Law School". www.law.columbia.edu . Retrieved March 10, 2016 . ^ a b c d "Canton native Kimberl(C) Crenshaw receives legal scholar award". The Repository . Retrieved March 10, 2016 . ^ "William H. Hastie Fellowship Program | University of Wisconsin Law School". law.wisc.edu . Retrieved March 10, 2016 . ^ Peller, Garry (1995). Critical Race Theory: The Key Writings that Formed the Movement. The New Press. ISBN 9781565842717. ^ Omokha, Rita (September 2021). " ' I See My Work as Talking Back': How Critical Race Theory Mastermind Kimberl(C) Crenshaw Is Weathering the Culture Wars" . Vanity Fair. ISSN 0733-8899. ^ "Courses Page". law.ucla.edu . Retrieved December 16, 2017 . ^ a b "Columbia University Record". Columbia.edu (2 ed.). September 15, 1995 . Retrieved March 9, 2016 . ^ Foundation, American Bar. "UCLA and Columbia Law Professor Kimberl(C) Crenshaw to Receive 2016 Fellows Outstanding Scholar Award '' American Bar Foundation". www.americanbarfoundation.org . Retrieved March 10, 2016 . ^ "Kimberle W. Crenshaw". Columbia Law School . Retrieved December 16, 2017 . ^ "Our mission". African American Policy Forum . Retrieved March 10, 2016 . ^ a b Poole, Shirley L. (November''December 2000). The Crisis. NAACP/The Crisis Publishing Company, Inc . Retrieved March 9, 2016 . ^ Harris-Perry, Melissa (April 18, 2016). "Where Are All the Black Feminists in Confirmation?". ELLE . Retrieved April 22, 2016 . ^ Knubel, Fred (September 16, 1995). "Kimberle Crenshaw Named Professor at Columbia Law". New York, NY: Columbia University, Office of Public Information . Retrieved January 25, 2018 . ^ "Kimberle Crenshaw biography". The African American Policy Forum . Retrieved January 25, 2018 . ^ "About the Tavis Smiley Show". The Tavis Smiley Show . Retrieved January 25, 2018 . ^ "The Joseph B. and Toby Gittler Prize Lecture". October 25, 2017 . Retrieved October 7, 2018 . ^ Gould, Jocelyn (October 31, 2017). "Kimberl(C) Crenshaw accepts Gittler Prize for career works". The Justice . Retrieved December 16, 2017 . ^ Wolfe, Jennifer (December 7, 2017). "Sexual Harassment Panel Offers Definitions, Strategies". Animation World Network . Retrieved December 16, 2017 . ^ Library Resource Finder: Table of Contents for: Sisterhood is forever : the women's anth . Vufind.carli.illinois.edu. 2003. ISBN 9780743466271 . Retrieved October 15, 2015 . ^ "WOW '' Women of the World | Southbank Centre". wow.southbankcentre.co.uk . Retrieved March 23, 2017 . ^ "#SayHerName". AAPF . Retrieved March 23, 2017 . ^ "Kimberl(C) Crenshaw '' On Intersectionality '' keynote '' WOW 2016: Southbank Centre". Southbank Centre at YouTube . Retrieved May 31, 2016 . ^ a b c d e f Carbado, Devon W. (2013). "Colorblind Intersectionality". Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society. 38 (4): 811''845. doi:10.1086/669666. ISSN 0097-9740. ^ Thomas, Sheila; Crenshaw, Kimberl(C) (Spring 2004). "Intersectionality: the double bind of race and gender" (PDF) . Perspectives Magazine. American Bar Association. p. 2. ^ a b Dhamoon, Rita Kaur (2011). "Considerations on Mainstreaming Intersectionality". Political Research Quarterly. 64 (1): 230''243. ISSN 1065-9129. ^ Puar, Jasbir K. (2017). "I Would Rather Be a Cyborg Than a Goddess": Becoming Intersectional In Assemblage Theory. New York: Routledge. p. 596. ISBN 978-1-138-93021-6. ^ "Black Women Still in Defense of Ourselves". The Nation. ISSN 0027-8378 . Retrieved March 10, 2016 . ^ BOSE, CHRISTINE E. (2012). "Intersectionality and Global Gender Inequality". Gender and Society. 26 (1): 67''72. doi:10.1177/0891243211426722. ISSN 0891-2432. JSTOR 23212241. S2CID 145233506. ^ "My Brother's Keeper". whitehouse.gov . Retrieved March 10, 2016 '' via National Archives. ^ https://www.nytimes.com/2013/07/14/us/george-zimmerman-verdict-trayvon-martin.html ^ "Why We Can't Wait: Women of Color Urge Inclusion in "My Brother's Keeper " ". AAPF . Retrieved March 10, 2016 . ^ "Remarks by President Obama at the White House Summit on Working Families". whitehouse.gov. June 23, 2014 . Retrieved November 8, 2020 '' via National Archives. ^ Kimberle Williams Crenshaw (July 29, 2014). "The Girls Obama Forgot". The New York Times . Retrieved November 8, 2020 . ^ Crenshaw, Kimberle Williams (July 29, 2014). "Kimberl(C) Williams Crenshaw: My Brother's Keeper Ignores Young Black Women". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331 . Retrieved November 5, 2019 . ^ a b "Reconstituting the Future: The Equality Amendment" (PDF) . Yale Law Journal. December 2019. ^ a b "Canton native wins fellowships to study race". The Repository . Retrieved March 10, 2016 . ^ report, CantonRep.com staff. "Kimberl(C) Crenshaw named to Ebony Magazine's 'Power 100 ' ". The Repository . Retrieved March 10, 2016 . ^ Foundation, American Bar. "UCLA and Columbia Law Professor Kimberl(C) Crenshaw to Receive 2016 Fellows Outstanding Scholar Award '' American Bar Foundation". www.americanbarfoundation.org . Retrieved March 10, 2016 . ^ Bencks, Jarret (October 27, 2017). "Kimberl(C) Crenshaw honored with Gittler Prize". BrandeisNOW . Retrieved December 16, 2017 . ^ "Honorary doctorate Kimberl(C) Crenshaw". KU Leuven. February 3, 2020 . Retrieved June 7, 2020 . ^ "Laudatio - Motivatio Kimberl(C) Crenshaw". KU Leuven. February 3, 2020 . Retrieved June 7, 2020 . ^ "New Members". American Academy of Arts & Sciences . Retrieved April 24, 2021 . ^ "Black Girls Matter: Pushed Out, Overpoliced and Underprotected". AAPF. December 30, 2014 . Retrieved February 8, 2019 . Sources [ edit ] UCLA Law Professors: Kimberl(C) W. CrenshawAlkalimat, Abdul (2004). The African American Experience in Cyberspace. Pluto Press. ISBN 0-7453-2222-0."O.J. Verdict Interviews: Kimberl(C) Williams Crenshaw". Frontline. PBS. April 22, 2005 . Retrieved June 17, 2009 . Further reading [ edit ] Mohdin, Aamna (November 12, 2020). "Kimberl(C) Crenshaw: the woman who revolutionised feminism '' and landed at the heart of the culture wars". The Guardian. External links [ edit ] Quotations related to Kimberl(C) Williams Crenshaw at WikiquoteIntersectionality Matters, podcast by Crenshaw and AAPF
  • Critical race theory - Wikipedia
    • Link to Article
    • Archived Version
    • Wed, 13 Oct 2021 00:43
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    • Academic movement regarding society, race and culture
    • Critical race theory (CRT) is a body of legal scholarship and an academic movement of US civil-rights scholars and activists who seek to critically examine the intersection of race and US law and to challenge mainstream American liberal approaches to racial justice.[1][2][4] CRT examines social, cultural, and legal issues primarily as they relate to race and racism in the US.[6] A tenet of CRT is that racism and disparate racial outcomes are the result of complex, changing, and often subtle social and institutional dynamics, rather than explicit and intentional prejudices of individuals.[7][8]
    • CRT originated in the mid-1970s in the writings of several American legal scholars, including Derrick Bell, Alan Freeman, Kimberl(C) Crenshaw, Richard Delgado, Cheryl Harris, Charles R. Lawrence III, Mari Matsuda, and Patricia J. Williams.[1] It emerged as a movement by the 1980s, reworking theories of critical legal studies (CLS) with more focus on race.[1] CRT is grounded in critical theory[10] and draws from thinkers such as Antonio Gramsci, Sojourner Truth, Frederick Douglass, and W. E. B. DuBois, as well as the Black Power, Chicano, and radical feminist movements from the 1960s and 1970s.[1]
    • CRT scholars view race and white supremacy as an intersectional social construct[7] that advances the interests of white people[11] at the expense of persons of other races.[12][13][14] In the field of legal studies, CRT emphasizes that formally colorblind laws can still have racially discriminatory outcomes.[15] A key CRT concept is intersectionality, which emphasizes that race can intersect with other identities (such as gender and class) to produce complex combinations of power and advantage.[16]
    • Academic critics of CRT argue that it relies on social constructionism, elevates storytelling over evidence and reason, rejects the concepts of truth and merit, and opposes liberalism.[17][18] Since 2020, conservative US lawmakers have sought to ban or restrict critical race theory instruction along with other anti'‘racism programs.[8][20] Critics of these efforts say the lawmakers have poorly defined or misrepresented the tenets and importance of CRT and that the goal of the laws is to more broadly silence discussions of racism, equality, social justice, and the history of race.[21][22][23]
    • Definitions Roy L. Brooks defined critical race theory in 1994 as "a collection of critical stances against the existing legal order from a race-based point of view". More specifically, race is a social construct and racism is neither an individual bias nor prejudice, but rather embedded in the legal system and supplemented with policies and procedures.[25]
    • Richard Delgado, a co-founder of the theory, defined it in 2017 as "a collection of activists and scholars interested in studying and transforming the relationship among race, racism, and power".
    • History Early analyses that later consolidated into critical race theory developed in the 1970s as legal scholars, activists, and lawyers tried to understand why civil-rights-era victories had stalled and were being eroded.
    • In the early 1980s, students of color at Harvard Law School organized protests regarding Harvard's lack of racial diversity in the curriculum, among students, and in the faculty.[28][29] These students supported professor Derrick Bell, who had resigned his position at Harvard because of what he viewed as the university's discriminatory practices.[22] Bell left Harvard in 1980 and then became the dean at University of Oregon School of Law. During his time at Harvard Law, Bell had developed new courses that studied American law through a racial lens. Harvard students of color wanted faculty of color to teach the new courses in his absence.[28][29]The university rejected student requests, responding that no sufficiently qualified black instructor existed.[30] Legal scholar Randall Kennedy writes that some students felt affronted by Harvard's choice to employ an "archetypal white liberal... in a way that precludes the development of black leadership".[31] In response, numerous students, including Kimberl(C) Crenshaw and Mari Matsuda, boycotted and organized to develop an "Alternative Course" using Bell's Race, Racism, and American Law (1973, 1st edition) as a core text.[32][33]
    • First meetings The first formal meeting centered on critical race theory was the 1989 "New Developments in Critical Race Theory" workshop, an effort to connect the theoretical underpinnings of critical legal studies (CLS) to the day-to-day realities of American racial politics. The workshop was organized by Kimberl(C) Crenshaw for a retreat entitled "New Developments in Critical Race Theory" that effectively created the field. As Crenshaw states, only she, Matsuda, Gotanda, Chuck Lawrence, and a handful of others knew "that there were no new developments in critical race theory, because CRT hadn't had any old ones'--it didn't exist, it was made up as a name. Sometimes you gotta fake it until you make it". Crenshaw states that critical race theorists had "discovered ourselves to be critical theorists who did race and racial justice advocates who did critical theory".[34][33] Crenshaw writes, "one might say that CRT was the offspring of a post-civil rights institutional activism that was generated and informed by an oppositionalist orientation toward racial power".[32]
    • One manner in which CRT diverged from CLS post-1987 was CRT's stress on the importance of race.[1] Though CLS criticized the legal system's role in generating and legitimizing oppressive social structures, it did not tend to provide alternatives. CRT scholars such as Derrick Bell and Alan Freeman argue that failure to include race and racism in its analysis prevented CLS from suggesting new directions for social transformation.
    • The 1989 critical race theory workshop at the University of Wisconsin-Madison, attended by 24 scholars of color, marked a turning point for the field. Following this meeting, scholars began publishing a higher volume of works employing critical race theory, including some that became popular among general audiences. In 1991, Patricia Williams published The Alchemy of Race and Rights, while Derrick Bell published Faces at the Bottom of the Well in 1992.[32]:'Š124'Š
    • Spread In 1995, pedagogical theorists Gloria Ladson-Billings and William F. Tate[further explanation needed ] began applying the critical race theory framework in the field of education, moving it beyond the field of legal scholarship. They sought to better understand inequities in schooling. Scholars have since expanded work in this context to explore issues including segregation, relations between race, gender, and academic achievement, pedagogy, and research methodologies.[36]
    • As of 2002[update], over 20 American law schools and at least three non-American law schools offered critical race theory courses or classes that covered the issue. In addition to law, critical race theory is taught and applied in the fields of education, political science, women's studies, ethnic studies, communication, sociology, and American studies. A variety of spin-off movements developed that apply critical race theory to specific groups. These include the Latino-critical (LatCrit), queer-critical, and Asian-critical movements. These other groups continued to engage with the main body of critical theory research, over time developing independent priorities and research methods. More recently, CRT has been taught internationally, including in the United Kingdom and Australia.[39][40]
    • List of scholars Principal figures of the theory include Derrick Bell, Patricia J. Williams, Kimberl(C) Williams Crenshaw, Camara Phyllis Jones, Angela P. Harris, Charles Lawrence, Alan Freeman, Neil Gotanda, Mitu Gulati, Jerry Kang, Eric Yamamoto, Robert Williams, Ian Haney L"pez, Kevin Johnson, Laura E. G"mez, Margaret Montoya, Juan Perea, Francisco Valdes, Dean Carbado, Cheryl Harris, Angela Onwuachi-Willig, Tom Ross, Stephanie Wildman, Nancy Levit, Robert Harman, Jean Stefancic, Andr(C) Cummings and Mari Matsuda.[42]
    • Common themes Common themes that are characteristic of critical race theory, as documented by scholars such as Richard Delgado and Jean Stefancic, include:
    • Critique of liberalism: Critical race theory scholars question foundational liberal concepts such as Enlightenment rationalism, legal equality, and Constitutional neutrality, and challenge the incrementalist approach of traditional civil-rights discourse. They favor a race-conscious approach to social transformation, critiquing liberal ideas such as affirmative action, color blindness, role modeling, or the merit principle with an approach that relies more on political organizing, in contrast to liberalism's reliance on rights-based remedies.Storytelling, counter-storytelling, and "naming one's own reality": The use of narrative (storytelling) to illuminate and explore lived experiences of racial oppression. Bryan Brayboy has emphasized the epistemic importance of storytelling in Indigenous-American communities as superseding that of theory, and has proposed a Tribal Critical Race Theory (TribCrit).[45]Revisionist interpretations of American civil rights law and progress: Criticism of civil-rights scholarship and anti-discrimination law, such as Brown v. Board of Education. Derrick Bell, one of CRT's founders, argues that civil-rights advances for black people coincided with the self-interest of white elitists. Likewise, Mary L. Dudziak performed extensive archival research in the U.S. Department of State and Department of Justice and concluded that U.S. government support for civil-rights legislation "was motivated in part by the concern that racial discrimination harmed the United States' foreign relations".Intersectional theory: The examination of race, sex, class, national origin, and sexual orientation, and how their combination (i.e., their intersections) plays out in various settings, e.g., how the needs of a Latina female are different from those of a black male and whose needs are the ones promoted.Standpoint epistemology: The view that a member of a minority has an authority and ability to speak about racism that members of other racial groups do not have, and that this can expose the racial neutrality of law as false.[1]Essentialism vs. anti-essentialism: Delgado and Stefancic write, "Scholars who write about these issues are concerned with the appropriate unit for analysis: Is the black community one, or many, communities? Do middle- and working-class African-Americans have different interests and needs? Do all oppressed peoples have something in common?" This is a look at the ways that oppressed groups may share in their oppression but also have different needs and values that need to be looked at differently. It is a question of how groups can be essentialized or are unable to be essentialized.Structural determinism: Exploration of how "the structure of legal thought or culture influences its content", whereby a particular mode of thought or widely shared practice determines significant social outcomes, usually occurring without conscious knowledge. As such, theorists posit that our system cannot redress certain kinds of wrongs.Empathetic fallacy: Believing that one can change a narrative by offering an alternative narrative in hopes that the listener's empathy will quickly and reliably take over. Empathy is not enough to change racism as most people are not exposed to many people different from themselves and people mostly seek out information about their own culture and group.Non-white cultural nationalism/separatism: The exploration of more radical views that argue for separation and reparations as a form of foreign aid (including black nationalism).Internalization Karen Pyke has documented the theoretical element of internalized racism or internalized racial oppression, whereby victims of racism begin to believe in the ideology that they are inferior to whites and white culture. The internalizing of racism is not due to any weakness, ignorance, inferiority, psychological defect, gullibility, or other shortcomings of the oppressed. Instead, it is how authority and power in all aspects of society contribute to feelings of inequality.
    • Institutional racism Camara Phyllis Jones defines institutionalized racism as
    • differential access to the goods, services, and opportunities of society by race. Institutionalized racism is normative, sometimes legalized and often manifests as inherited disadvantage. It is structural, having been absorbed into our institutions of custom, practice, and law, so there need not be an identifiable offender. Indeed, institutionalized racism is often evident as inaction in the face of need, manifesting itself both in material conditions and in access to power. With regard to the former, examples include differential access to quality education, sound housing, gainful employment, appropriate medical facilities, and a clean environment.
    • Influence of critical legal studies Critical race theory shares many intellectual commitments with critical theory, critical legal studies, feminist jurisprudence, and postcolonial theory. But authors like Tommy J. Curry have written that the epistemic convergences with such approaches are emphasized due to the idealist turn in critical race theory. The latter, as Curry explains, is interested in discourse (i.e., how individuals speak about race) and the theories of white Continental philosophers, over and against the structural and institutional accounts of white supremacy which were at the heart of the realist analysis of racism introduced in Derrick Bell's early works,[page needed ] and articulated through such Black thinkers as W. E. B. Du Bois, Paul Robeson, and Judge Robert L. Carter.[page needed ]
    • Critical race theory draws on the priorities and perspectives of both critical legal studies and conventional civil rights scholarship, while also sharply contesting both of these fields. Critical race theory's theoretical elements are provided by a variety of sources. Angela P. Harris describes critical race theory as sharing "a commitment to a vision of liberation from racism through right reason" with the civil rights tradition. It deconstructs some premises and arguments of legal theory and simultaneously holds that legally constructed rights are incredibly important.[56][page needed ] As described by Derrick Bell, critical race theory in Harris' view is committed to "radical critique of the law (which is normatively deconstructionist) and... radical emancipation by the law (which is normatively reconstructionist)".
    • Applications Scholars of critical race theory have focused, with some particularity, on the issues of hate crime and hate speech. In response to the opinion of the U.S. Supreme Court in the hate speech case of R.A.V. v. City of St. Paul (1992), in which the Court struck down an anti-bias ordinance as applied to a teenager who had burned a cross, Mari Matsuda and Charles Lawrence argued that the Court had paid insufficient attention to the history of racist speech and the actual injury produced by such speech.[58]
    • Critical race theorists have also argued in favor of affirmative action. They propose that so-called merit standards for hiring and educational admissions are not race-neutral and that such standards are part of the rhetoric of neutrality through which whites justify their disproportionate share of resources and social benefits.
    • Criticism Academic Law professors Daniel A. Farber and Suzanna Sherry argue that critical race theory lacks supporting evidence, relies on an implausible belief that reality is socially constructed, rejects evidence in favor of storytelling, rejects truth and merit as expressions of political dominance, and rejects the rule of law.[17] Farber and Sherry additionally posit that anti-meritocratic tenets in critical race theory, critical feminism, and critical legal studies may unintentionally lead to antisemitic and anti-Asian implications.[60][61] They suggest that the success of Jews and Asians within what critical race theorists argue is a structurally unfair system may lend itself to allegations of cheating, advantage-taking, or other such claims. Responses to Farber and Sherry published in the Harvard Law Review argue that there is a difference between criticizing an unfair system and criticizing individuals who perform well inside that system.[17]
    • In a 1999 Boston College Law Review article titled Race, Equality and the Rule of Law: Critical Race Theory's Attack on the Promises of Liberalism, First Amendment lawyer Jeffrey J. Pyle argued that critical race theory undermined confidence in the rule of law. He wrote that "critical race theorists attack the very foundations of the liberal legal order, including equality theory, legal reasoning, Enlightenment rationalism and neutral principles of constitutional law".
    • Judge Richard Posner of the U.S. Seventh Circuit Court of Appeals argued in 1997 that critical race theory "turns its back on the Western tradition of rational inquiry, forswearing analysis for narrative" and that "by repudiating reasoned argumentation, [critical race theorists] reinforce stereotypes about the intellectual capacities of nonwhites."[18] Former Judge Alex Kozinski, who served on the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals, criticized critical race theorists in 1997 for raising "insuperable barriers to mutual understanding" and thus eliminating opportunities for "meaningful dialogue".[64]
    • Political controversies Critical race theory has stirred controversy in the United States since the 1980s for critiquing color blindness, promoting the use of narrative in legal studies, advocating "legal instrumentalism" as opposed to ideal-driven uses of the law, analyzing the U.S. Constitution and existing law as constructed according to and perpetuating racial power, and encouraging legal scholars to promote racial equity.[1] An example of an instrumentalist approach is attorney Johnnie Cochran's defense in the O. J. Simpson murder case, in which Cochran urged the jury to acquit Simpson in spite of the evidence against him'--a form of jury nullification as payback for the United States' racist past.[1] In the run-up to and aftermath of the 2020 US presidential election, opposition to critical race theory was adopted as a campaign theme by Donald Trump and various conservative commentators on Fox News and right-wing talk radio shows.[22]
    • 1990s Lani Guinier, Bill Clinton's nominee for Assistant Attorney General, was attacked by Republicans in part for her association with CRT, in an attempt to block her nomination.[22] These attacks ultimately proved successful, since Clinton quickly withdrew her nomination on June 4, 1993, on the basis of disagreements with her legal philosophy.[65]
    • 2010s In 2010, a Mexican-American studies program in Tucson, Arizona, was halted because of a state law forbidding public schools from offering race-conscious education in the form of "advocat[ing] ethnic solidarity instead of the treatment of pupils as individuals".[66] Certain books, including a primer on CRT, were banned from the curriculum.[66] Matt de la Pe±a's young-adult novel Mexican WhiteBoy was banned for "containing 'critical race theory ' " according to state officials.[67] The ban on ethnic-studies programs was later deemed unconstitutional on the grounds that the state showed discriminatory intent: "Both enactment and enforcement were motivated by racial animus", federal Judge A. Wallace Tashima ruled.[68]
    • 2020s Australia In June 2021, following media reports that the proposed national curriculum was "preoccupied with the oppression, discrimination and struggles of Indigenous Australians", the Australian Senate approved a motion tabled by right-wing senator Pauline Hanson calling on the federal government to reject CRT, despite it not being included in the curriculum.[69]
    • United Kingdom In October 2020, the Conservative UK Equalities Minister Kemi Badenoch stated that, in regard to teaching critical race theory in primary and secondary schools;
    • we do not want to see teachers teaching their pupils about white privilege and inherited racial guilt ... any school which teaches these elements of critical race theory, or which promotes partisan political views such as defunding the police without offering a balanced treatment of opposing views, is breaking the law."[70]
    • In an open letter, 101 writers of the Black Writers' Guild denounced Badenoch for remarks about popular anti-racism books such as White Fragility and Why I'm No Longer Talking to White People About Race, made in an interview in The Spectator, in which she said, "many of these books'--and, in fact, some of the authors and proponents of critical race theory'--actually want a segregated society".[71]
    • United States Conservative lawmakers and activists have used the term "critical race theory" as "a catchall phrase for nearly any examination of systemic racism", according to The Washington Post.[8] In September 2020, after seeing a piece on Fox News in which conservative activist Christopher Rufo denounced CRT,[72] President Donald Trump issued an executive order directing agencies of the United States federal government to cancel funding for programs that mention "white privilege" or "critical race theory", on the basis that it constituted "divisive, un-American propaganda" and that it was "racist".[73][74][75] Rufo's use of the term propelled the controversy into the mainstream; he wrote on Twitter, "The goal is to have the public read something crazy in the newspaper and immediately think 'critical race theory'."[8][20][76]
    • In a speech on September 17, 2020, Trump denounced critical race theory and announced the formation of the 1776 Commission to promote "patriotic education".[77] On January 20, 2021, President Joe Biden rescinded Trump's order[78] and dissolved the 1776 Commission.[79] Opposition to critical race theory was subsequently adopted as a major theme by several conservative think tanks and pressure groups, including the Heritage Foundation, the Idaho Freedom Foundation and the American Legislative Exchange Council.[80][76]
    • In early 2021, bills were introduced in a number of Republican-controlled state legislatures to restrict teaching critical race theory in public schools,[81] including Idaho, Iowa, Oklahoma, Tennessee and Texas.[82] Several of these bills specifically mention "critical race theory" or single out the New York Times 1619 Project. In mid-April 2021, a bill was introduced in the Idaho legislature that would effectively ban any educational entity (including school districts, public charter schools, and public institutions of higher education) in the state from teaching or advocating "sectarianism", including critical race theory or other programs involving social justice.[83] On May 4, 2021, the bill was signed into law by Governor Brad Little.[84] On June 10, 2021, the Florida State Board of Education unanimously voted to ban public schools from teaching critical race theory at the urging of governor Ron DeSantis.[85] As of July 2021, 10 U.S. states have introduced bills or taken other steps that would restrict teaching critical race theory, and 26 others were in the process of doing so.[86][80] In June 2021, the American Association of University Professors, the American Historical Association, the Association of American Colleges and Universities, and PEN America released a joint statement stating their opposition to such legislation, and by August 2021, 167 professional organizations had signed onto the statement.[87][88]
    • Subfields Within critical race theory, various sub-groupings have emerged that focus on issues and nuances that are unique to a particular ethno-racial and/or marginalized community. This can include issues that relate to the intersection of race with disability, ethnicity, gender, sexuality, class, religion and other social structures. For example, disability critical race studies (DisCrit), critical race feminism (CRF), Hebrew Crit (HebCrit), Black Critical Race Theory (Black Crit), Latino critical race studies (LatCrit), Asian American critical race studies (AsianCrit), South Asian American critical race studies (DesiCrit), and American Indian critical race studies (sometimes called TribalCrit). CRT methodologies have also been applied to the study of white immigrant groups. CRT has spurred some scholars to call for a second wave of whiteness studies, which is now a small offshoot known as Second Wave Whiteness (SWW). Critical race theory has also begun to spawn research that looks at understandings of race outside the United States.[94]
    • Disability critical race theory Another offshoot field is disability critical race studies (DisCrit), which combines disability studies and CRT to focus on the intersection of disability and race.
    • Latino critical race theory Latino critical race theory (LatCRT or LatCrit) is a research framework that outlines the social construction of race as central to how people of color are constrained and oppressed in society. Race scholars developed LatCRT as a critical response to the "problem of the color line" first explained by W. E. B. Du Bois. While CRT focuses on the Black''White paradigm, LatCRT has moved to consider other racial groups, mainly Chicana/Chicanos, as well as Latinos/as, Asians, Native Americans/First Nations, and women of color.
    • In Critical Race Counterstories along the Chicana/Chicano Educational Pipeline, Tara J. Yosso discusses how the constraint of POC can be defined. Looking at the differences between Chicana/o students, the tenets that separate such individuals are: the intercentricity of race and racism, the challenge of dominant ideology, the commitment to social justice, the centrality of experience knowledge, and the interdisciplinary perspective.
    • LatCRTs main focus is to advocate social justice for those living in marginalized communities (specifically Chicana/os), who are guided by structural arrangements that disadvantage people of color. Social institutions function as dispossessions, disenfranchisement, and discrimination over minority groups, while LatCRT seeks to give voice to those who are victimized. In order to do so, LatCRT has created two common themes:
    • First, CRT proposes that white supremacy and racial power are maintained over time, a process that the law plays a central role in. Different racial groups lack the voice to speak in this civil society, and, as such, CRT has introduced a new critical form of expression, called the voice of color. The voice of color is narratives and storytelling monologues used as devices for conveying personal racial experiences. These are also used to counter metanarratives that continue to maintain racial inequality. Therefore, the experiences of the oppressed are important aspects for developing a LatCRT analytical approach, and it has not been since the rise of slavery that an institution has so fundamentally shaped the life opportunities of those who bear the label of criminal.
    • Secondly, LatCRT work has investigated the possibility of transforming the relationship between law enforcement and racial power, as well as pursuing a project of achieving racial emancipation and anti-subordination more broadly. Its body of research is distinct from general critical race theory in that it emphasizes immigration theory and policy, language rights, and accent- and national origin-based forms of discrimination. CRT finds the experiential knowledge of people of color and draws explicitly from these lived experiences as data, presenting research findings through storytelling, chronicles, scenarios, narratives, and parables.
    • Asian critical race theory Asian critical race theory looks at the influence of race and racism on the experiences and outcomes of Asian Americans in U.S. education, providing a foundation for discourse around the racial experiences of Asian Americans and other racially marginalized groups in education.[101] Like Latino critical race theory, Asian critical race theory is distinct from the main body of CRT in its emphasis on immigration theory and policy.
    • See also Judicial aspects of race in the United StatesInstitutional racismNotes ^ a b c d e f g h Ansell, Amy (2008). "Critical Race Theory" . In Schaefer, Richard T. (ed.). Encyclopedia of Race, Ethnicity, and Society, Volume 1. SAGE Publications. pp. 344''346. doi:10.4135/9781412963879.n138. ISBN 978-1-4129-2694-2. ^ "Critical race theory" . Encyclopedia Britannica. June 16, 2021. ^ Crenshaw et al. 1995, p. xiii. ^ Gordon, Lewis R. (Spring 1999). "A Short History of the 'Critical' in Critical Race Theory". American Philosophy Association Newsletter. 98 (2). Archived from the original on May 2, 2003. ^ a b Gillborn, David; Ladson-Billings, Gloria (2020), "Critical Race Theory", SAGE Research Methods Foundations, SAGE Publications, doi:10.4135/9781526421036764633, ISBN 978-1-5264-2103-6, archived from the original on June 22, 2021 , retrieved June 21, 2021 ^ a b c d Iati, Marisa (May 29, 2021). "What is critical race theory, and why do Republicans want to ban it in schools?" . The Washington Post. ISSN 0190-8286. ^ Crenshaw et al. 1995, p. xxvii ^ Curry, Tommy (2009a). "Critical Race Theory". In Greene, Helen Taylor; Gabbidon, Shaun L. (eds.). Encyclopedia of Race and Crime. SAGE Publications. p. 166. ISBN 978-1-4129-5085-5. ^ Milner, Richard. "Analyzing Poverty, Learning, and Teaching Through a Critical Race Theory Lens". Review of Research in Education. 37. ^ Crenshaw, Kimberly (1990). "Mapping the margins: Intersectionality, identity politics, and violence against women of color". Stanford Law Review. ^ Crenshaw, Kimberle (1989). "Demarginalizing the intersection of race and sex: a black feminist critique of antidiscrimination doctrine, feminist theory and antiracist politics". Chicago: University of Chicago Legal Forum. ^ Crenshaw, Kimberl(C) Williams (2019). "Unmasking Colorblindness in the Law: Lessons from the Formation of Critical Race Theory" . Seeing Race Again: Countering Colorblindness across the Disciplines. University of California Press. pp. 52''84. doi:10.1525/9780520972148-004. ISBN 978-0-520-97214-8. JSTOR j.ctvcwp0hd. Archived from the original on June 22, 2021 . Retrieved June 21, 2021 . ^ Gillborn, David (2015). "Intersectionality, Critical Race Theory, and the Primacy of Racism: Race, Class, Gender, and Disability in Education". Qualitative Inquiry. 21 (3): 277''287. doi:10.1177/1077800414557827. ISSN 1077-8004. S2CID 147260539. Archived from the original on January 14, 2021 . Retrieved June 21, 2021 . ^ a b c Farber, Daniel A.; Sherry, Suzanna (1997). Beyond All Reason: The Radical Assault on Truth in American Law . Oxford University Press. pp. 5, 9''11, 58, 118''119, 127. ISBN 978-0-19-535543-7. ^ a b Posner, Richard A. (October 13, 1997). "The Skin Trade" (PDF) . The New Republic. Vol. 217 no. 15. pp. 40''43. Archived from the original (PDF) on October 5, 2016. ^ a b Wallace-Wells, Benjamin (June 18, 2021). 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Researching Race in Education: Policy, Practice, and Qualitative Research. Charlotte, N.C.: Information Age Publishing. pp. 49''50. ISBN 978-1-6239-6678-2. When Bell departed from Harvard to lead the University of Oregon School of Law, Harvard's law students of color demanded that another faculty member of color be hired to replace him. ^ Crenshaw et al. 1995, pp. xx: "The liberal white Harvard administration responded to student protests, demonstrations, rallies, and sit-ins'--including a takeover of the Dean's office'--by asserting that there were no qualified black scholars who merited Harvard's interest." ^ Kennedy, Randall L. (June 1989). "Racial Critiques of Legal Academia". Harvard Law Review. 102 (8): 1745''1819. doi:10.2307/1341357. JSTOR 1341357. ^ a b c Gottesman, Isaac (2016). "Critical Race Theory and Legal Studies". The Critical Turn in Education: From Marxist Critique to Poststructuralist Feminism to Critical Theories of Race. London: Taylor & Francis. p. 123. 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Archived from the original on June 12, 2021 . Retrieved June 12, 2021 . ^ Schwartz, Sarah (June 11, 2021). "Map: Where Critical Race Theory Is Under Attack". Education Week . Retrieved July 13, 2021 . ^ "Joint Statement on Legislative Efforts to Restrict Education about Racism in American History". American Historical Association. June 16, 2021 . Retrieved August 9, 2021 . ^ "Joint Statement on Legislative Efforts to Restrict Education about Racism and American History" (PDF) . Retrieved August 9, 2021 . ^ See, e.g., Levin 2008. ^ Iftikar, Jon S.; Museus, Samuel D. (November 26, 2018). "On the utility of Asian critical (AsianCrit) theory in the field of education". International Journal of Qualitative Studies in Education. 31 (10): 935''949. doi:10.1080/09518398.2018.1522008. S2CID 149949621. Archived from the original on June 22, 2021 . Retrieved October 21, 2020 '' via Taylor and Francis+NEJM. References Annamma, Subini Ancy; Connor, David; Ferri, Beth (2012). "Dis/ability critical race studies (DisCrit): theorizing at the intersections of race and dis/ability". Race Ethnicity and Education. 16 (1): 1''31. doi:10.1080/13613324.2012.730511. S2CID 145739550. Bell, Derrick A, Jr. (1980). "Brown v. Board of Education and the Interest-Convergence Dilemma" (PDF) . Harvard Law Review. 93 (3): 518''533. doi:10.2307/1340546. JSTOR 1340546. Archived (PDF) from the original on September 10, 2016 . Retrieved September 18, 2016 . Bell, Derrick A. (1995). "Who's Afraid of Critical Race Theory?". University of Illinois Law Review. 1995 (4): 893ff. Bridges, Khiara M. (2019). Critical Race Theory: A Primer. St. Paul, Minn.: Foundation Press. ISBN 978-1-6832-8443-7. OCLC 1054004570. Brooks, Roy (1994). "Critical Race Theory: A Proposed Structure and Application to Federal Pleading". Harvard BlackLetter Law Journal. 11: 85ff. ISSN 0897-2761. Carbado, Devon W.; Gulati, Mitu; Valdes, Francisco; Culp, Jerome McCristal; Harris, Angela P. (May 2003). "The Law and Economics of Critical Race Theory" (PDF) . The Yale Law Journal. 112 (7): 1757. doi:10.2307/3657500. JSTOR 3657500. Archived (PDF) from the original on October 5, 2016 . Retrieved September 17, 2016 . Cole, Mike (2007). Marxism and Educational Theory: Origins and Issues. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-0-203-39732-9. Crenshaw, Kimberl(C) (1988). "Race, Reform and Retrenchment: Transformation and Legitimation in Anti-Discrimination Law". Harvard Law Review. 101 (7): 1331''1387. doi:10.2307/1341398. ISSN 0017-811X. JSTOR 1341398. Crenshaw, Kimberl(C); Gotanda, Neil; Peller, Gary; Thomas, Kendall, eds. (1995). Critical Race Theory: The Key Writings that Formed the Movement . New York: The New Press. ISBN 978-1-56584-271-7. Curry, Tommy J. (2009b). "Will the Real CRT Please Stand Up: The Dangers of Philosophical Contributions to CRT". The Crit: A Critical Legal Studies Journal. 2 (1): 1''47. Archived from the original on June 22, 2021 . Retrieved September 17, 2016 . Curry, Tommy J. (2012). "Shut Your Mouth when You're Talking to Me: Silencing the Idealist School of Critical Race Theory through a Culturalogic Turn in Jurisprudence". Georgetown Journal of Law and Modern Critical Race Studies. 3 (1): 1''38. ISSN 1946-3154. Archived from the original on June 22, 2021 . Retrieved September 17, 2016 . Delgado, Richard (1995). "Rodrigo's Tenth Chronicle: Merit and Affirmative Action". Georgetown Law Journal. 83 (4): 1711''1748. ISSN 0016-8092. SSRN 2094599 . Delgado, Richard; Stefancic, Jean (1993). "Critical Race Theory: An Annotated Bibliography". Virginia Law Review. 79 (2): 461''516. doi:10.2307/1073418. ISSN 0042-6601. JSTOR 1073418. Archived from the original on February 21, 2021 . Retrieved January 15, 2021 . Delgado, Richard; Stefancic, Jean (1998). The Latino/a Condition: A Critical Reader. New York University Press. ISBN 978-0-8147-1894-0. Delgado, Richard; Stefancic, Jean (2012). Critical Race Theory: An Introduction. Critical America (2nd ed.). New York University Press. ISBN 978-0-8147-2136-0. Delgado, Richard; Stefancic, Jean (2001). Critical race theory : an introduction (1st ed.). New York University Press. ISBN 0-8147-1930-9. Delgado, Richard; Stefancic, Jean (2017). Critical race theory : an introduction (Third ed.). New York University Press. ISBN 978-1-4798-0276-0. Bernal, Dolores Delgado (February 2002). "Critical Race Theory, Latino Critical Theory, and Critical Raced-Gendered Epistemologies: Recognizing Students of Color as Holders and Creators of Knowledge". Qualitative Inquiry. 8 (1): 105''126. doi:10.1177/107780040200800107. S2CID 146643087. Dudziak, Mary L. (November 1988). "Desegregation as a Cold War Imperative". Stanford Law Review. 41 (1): 61''120. doi:10.2307/1228836. JSTOR 1228836. Dudziak, Mary (1993). "Desegration as a Cold War Imperative". Stanford Law Review. 41 (1): 61''120. doi:10.2307/1228836. ISSN 0038-9765. JSTOR 1228836. Gates, Henry Louis, Jr. (1996). "Critical Race Theory and Freedom of Speech". In Menand, Louis (ed.). The Future of Academic Freedom. University of Chicago Press. pp. 119''159. ISBN 978-0-226-52004-9. Harpalani, Vinay (August 12, 2013). "DesiCrit: Theorizing the Racial Ambiguity of South Asian Americans" (PDF) . New York University Annual Survey of American Law. 69 (1): 77''183. SSRN 2308892 . Archived (PDF) from the original on June 22, 2021 . Retrieved September 11, 2020 . Harris, Angela P. (July 1994). "Foreword: The Jurisprudence of Reconstruction". California Law Review. 82 (4): 741''785. doi:10.2307/3480931. JSTOR 3480931. Harris, Cheryl I. (June 1993). "Whiteness as Property". Harvard Law Review. 106 (8): 1707''1791. doi:10.2307/1341787. JSTOR 1341787. Harris, Cheryl (2002). "Critical Race Studies: An Introduction". UCLA Law Review. 49 (5): 1215ff. ISSN 1943-1724. Jones, Camara Phyllis (2002). "Confronting Institutionalized Racism". Phylon. 50 (1/2): 7''22. doi:10.2307/4149999. ISSN 0031-8906. JSTOR 4149999. S2CID 158126244. Jupp, James C.; Berry, Theodorea Regina; Lensmire, Timothy J. (December 2016). "Second-Wave White Teacher Identity Studies: A Review of White Teacher Identity Literatures From 2004 Through 2014". Review of Educational Research. 86 (4): 1151''1191. doi:10.3102/0034654316629798. S2CID 147354763. Kang, Jerry; Banaji, Mahzarin R. (2006). "Fair Measures: A Behavioral Realist Revision of Affirmative Action". California Law Review. 94 (4): 1063''1118. doi:10.15779/Z38370Q. SSRN 873907 . Kennedy, Duncan (September 1990). "A Cultural Pluralist Case for Affirmative Action in Legal Academia". Duke Law Journal. 1990 (4): 705''757. doi:10.2307/1372722. JSTOR 1372722. Archived from the original on June 22, 2021 . Retrieved September 11, 2020 . Ladson-Billings, Gloria (January 1998). "Just what is critical race theory and what's it doing in a nice field like education?". International Journal of Qualitative Studies in Education. 11 (1): 7''24. doi:10.1080/095183998236863. Levin, Mark (2008). "The Wajin's Whiteness: Law and Race Privilege in Japan". Hōritsu Jihō. 80 (2): 80''91. SSRN 1551462 . Matsuda, Mari (1987). "Looking to the Bottom: Critical Legal Studies and Reparations". Harvard Civil Rights-Civil Liberties Law Review. 22 (2): 323ff. ISSN 2153-2389. Myslinska, Dagmar (2014a). "Contemporary First-Generation European-Americans: The Unbearable 'Whiteness' of Being". Tulane Law Review. 88 (3): 559''625. ISSN 0041-3992. SSRN 2222267 . Myslinska, Dagmar (2014b). "Racist Racism: Complicating Whiteness Through the Privilege and Discrimination of Westerners in Japan". UMKC Law Review. 83 (1): 1''55. ISSN 0047-7575. SSRN 2399984 . Pyke, Karen D. (2010). "What is Internalized Racial Oppression and Why Don't We Study it? Acknowledging Racism's Hidden Injuries". Sociological Perspectives. 53 (4): 551''572. doi:10.1525/sop.2010.53.4.551. ISSN 1533-8673. JSTOR 10.1525/sop.2010.53.4.551. S2CID 43997467. Pyle, Jeffrey (May 1, 1999). "Race, Equality and the Rule of Law: Critical Race Theory's Attack on the Promises of Liberalism". Boston College Law Review. 40 (3): 787''827. Archived from the original on July 12, 2020 . Retrieved September 11, 2020 . Trevi±o, A. Javier; Harris, Michelle A.; Wallace, Derron (March 2008). "What's so critical about critical race theory?". Contemporary Justice Review. 11 (1): 7''10. doi:10.1080/10282580701850330. S2CID 145399733. Williams, Patricia J. (1991). The Alchemy of Race and Rights: Diary of a Law Professor. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-01470-1. Yosso, Tara J. (March 2005). "Whose culture has capital? A critical race theory discussion of community cultural wealth" (PDF) . Race Ethnicity and Education. 8 (1): 69''91. doi:10.1080/1361332052000341006. Yosso, Tara J. (2006). Critical Race Counterstories along the Chicana/Chicano Educational Pipeline . Teaching/Learning Social Justice. New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-95195-1. Further reading Brewer, Mary (2005). Staging Whiteness. Middletown, Connecticut: Wesleyan University Press. ISBN 978-0-8195-6769-7. Curran, Andrew (2011). The Anatomy of Blackness: Science and Slavery in an Age of Enlightenment. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 978-1-4214-0965-8. Archived from the original on August 24, 2018 . Retrieved August 23, 2018 . Delgado, Richard, ed. (1995). Critical Race Theory: The Cutting Edge. Philadelphia: Temple University Press. ISBN 978-1-5663-9347-8. Dixson, Adrienne D.; Rousseau, Celia K., eds. (2006). Critical Race Theory in Education: All God's Children Got a Song. New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-95292-7. Epstein, Kitty Kelly (2006). A Different View of Urban Schools: Civil Rights, Critical Race Theory, and Unexplored Realities. Peter Lang. ISBN 978-0-8204-7879-1. Ladson-Billings, Gloria; Tate, William F. IV (1994). "Toward a Critical Race Theory of Education". Teachers College Record. 97 (1): 47''68. ISSN 0161-4681 '' via ResearchGate. Solorzano, Daniel G. (1997). "Images and Words that Wound: Critical Race Theory, Racial Stereotyping, and Teacher Education" (PDF) . Teacher Education Quarterly. 24 (3): 5''19. JSTOR 23478088. Archived (PDF) from the original on November 6, 2020 . Retrieved September 11, 2020 . Sol"rzano, Daniel; Ceja, Miguel; Yosso, Tara (2000). "Critical Race Theory, Racial Microaggressions, and Campus Racial Climate: The Experiences of African American College Students". The Journal of Negro Education. 69 (1/2): 60''73. JSTOR 2696265. ProQuest 222072305. Solorzano, Daniel G.; Bernal, Dolores Delgado (May 2001). "Examining Transformational Resistance Through a Critical Race and Latcrit Theory Framework: Chicana and Chicano Students in an Urban Context". Urban Education. 36 (3): 308''342. doi:10.1177/0042085901363002. S2CID 144784134. Solorzano, Daniel G.; Yosso, Tara J. (July 2001). "Critical race and LatCrit theory and method: Counter-storytelling". International Journal of Qualitative Studies in Education. 14 (4): 471''495. doi:10.1080/09518390110063365. S2CID 144999298. Sol"rzano, Daniel G.; Yosso, Tara J. (May 2002). "A Critical Race Counterstory of Race, Racism, and Affirmative Action". Equity & Excellence in Education. 35 (2): 155''168. doi:10.1080/713845284. S2CID 146680966. Tate, William F. IV (January 1997). "Chapter 4: Critical Race Theory and Education: History, Theory, and Implications". Review of Research in Education. 22 (1): 195''247. doi:10.3102/0091732X022001195. JSTOR 1167376. S2CID 53626156. Taylor, Edward (Spring 1998). "A Primer on Critical Race Theory". Journal of Blacks in Higher Education (19): 122''124. doi:10.2307/2998940. ISSN 1077-3711. JSTOR 2998940. Tuitt, Patricia (2004). Race, Law, Resistance. London: Glasshouse Press. ISBN 978-1-9043-8506-6. Tyson, Lois (2006). Critical Theory Today: A User-Friendly Guide 2nd Edition. New York-London: Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group. ISBN 978-0-415-97410-3. V(C)lez, Veronica; Huber, Lindsay Perez; Lopez, Corina Benavides; de la Luz, Ariana; Sol"rzano, Daniel G. (2008). "Battling for Human Rights and Social Justice: A Latina/o Critical Race Media Analysis of Latina/o Student Youth Activism in the Wake of 2006 Anti-Immigrant Sentiment". Social Justice. 35 (1): 7''27. JSTOR 29768477.
  • The Green Agenda or How This Energy Crisis is Different from All Others
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    • Archived Version
    • Tue, 12 Oct 2021 19:49
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    • Image Attribution Author: Pxfuel.com Image License: Public Domain.Image Link: LINK By F. William Engdahl 11 October 2021 The price of energy from all sources conventional is exploding globally. Far from accidental, it is a well-orchestrated plan to collapse the industrial world economy that has already been weakened dramatically by almost two years of ridiculous covid quarantine and related measures. What we are seeing is a price explosion in key oil, coal and now especially, natural gas energy. What makes this different from the energy shocks of the 1970s is that this time, it is developing as the corporate investment world, using the fraudulent ESG green investment model, is dis-investing in future oil, gas and coal while OECD governments embrace horrendously inefficient, unreliable solar and wind that will insure the collapse of industrial society perhaps as early as the next months. Barring a dramatic rethinking, the EU and other industrial economies are willfully committing economic suicide .
    • What only a few years ago was accepted as obvious was that ensuring an abundant, reliable, efficient and affordable energy defines the economy. Without efficient energy we cannot make steel, concrete, mine raw materials or any of the things that support our modern economies. In the past months the world price of coal for power generation has doubled. The price of natural gas has risen by almost 500%. Oil is headed to $90 a barrel, highest in seven years. This is a planned consequence of what is sometimes called the Davos Great Reset or the Green Agenda zero carbon madness.
    • Some two decades ago Europe began a major shift to mis-named renewables or Green Energy, mainly solar and wind. Germany, the heart of EU industry, led the transformation with former chancellor Merkel's ill-conceived Energiewende, where Germany's last nuclear power plants will close in 2022 and coal plants are rapidly being phased out. This all has now collided with the reality that Green Energy is not at all able to deal with major supply shortages. The crisis was entirely predictable.
    • Green Chickens Come Home to Roost
    • With the widespread covid lockdowns of industry and travel in 2020 EU natural gas consumption fell dramatically. The largest EU gas supplier, Gazprom of Russia, in interest of an orderly long-term market, duly reduced its deliveries to the EU market even at a loss. An unusually mild 2019-2020 winter allowed EU gas storage to reach maximum. A long, severe winter all but erased that in 2021.
    • Contrary to EU politicians' claims, Gazprom has not played politics with the EU to force approval of its new NordStream 2 gas pipeline to Germany. As EU demand resumed in the first six months of 2021, Gazprom rushed to meet it and even exceed record 2019 levels, and even at the expense of replenishing Russian gas storage for the coming winter.
    • With the EU now firmly committed to a Green Energy agenda, Fit for 55, and explicitly rejecting natural gas as a long-term option, while at the same time killing coal and nuclear, the incompetence of the think-tank climate models that justified a 100% CO2-free, electric society by 2050 has come home to roost.
    • Because financial investors on Wall Street and London saw the benefit of huge profits from the Green energy agenda, working with the Davos World Economic Forum to promote the laughable ESG investing model, conventional oil, gas and coal companies are not investing profits in expanded production. In 2020 worldwide spending on oil, gas, coal dropped by an estimated $1 trillion. That is not coming back.
    • With BlackRock and other investors all but boycotting ExxonMobil and other energy companies in favor of ''sustainable'' energy, one exceptionally cold and long winter in Europe and a record lack of wind in northern Germany, triggered a panic buying of gas on world LNG Markets in early September.
    • The problem was the restocking was too late, as most available LNG from the USA, Qatar and other sources that normally would be available had already been sold to China where an equally confused energy policy, including a political ban on Australian coal, has led to plant closings and a recent government order to secure gas and coal ''at any cost.'' Qatar, US LNG exporters and others have flocked to Asia leaving the EU in the cold, literally.
    • Deregulation of Energy
    • What few understand is how today's Green energy markets are rigged to benefit speculators like hedge funds or investors like BlackRock or Deutsche Bank and penalize energy consumers. The headline prices for natural gas traded in Europe, the Dutch TTF futures contract, is sold by the London-based ICE Exchange. It speculates on what future wholesale natural gas prices in the EU will be in one, two or three months hence. The ICE is backed by Goldman Sachs, Morgan Stanley, Deutsche Bank and Soci(C)t(C) G(C)n(C)rale among others. The market is in what are called gas futures contracts or derivatives.
    • Banks or others can speculate for pennies on the dollar, and when news broke on how low EU gas storage for the coming winter were, financial sharks went on a feeding frenzy. By early October futures prices for Dutch TTF gas had exploded by an unprecedented 300% in only days. Since February it is far worse, as a standard LNG cargo of 3.4 trillion BTU (British Thermal Units) now costs $100-120 million, while at the end of February its cost was less than $20 million. That's a 500-600% rise in seven months.
    • The underlying problem is that, unlike the case for most of the postwar period, since the political promotion of unreliable and high-cost solar and wind ''renewables'' in the EU and elsewhere (e.g. Texas, February 2021) electric utility markets and their prices have been deliberately deregulated to promote Green alternatives and force out gas and coal on the dubious argument that their CO2 emissions endanger the future of humankind if not reduced to zero by 2050.
    • The prices borne by the end consumer are set by the energy suppliers who integrate the different costs under competitive conditions. The diabolical way EU electricity costs are computed, allegedly to encourage inefficient solar and wind and discourage conventional sources, is that, as French energy analyst Antonio Haya put it, ''the most expensive plant of those needed to cover demand (marginal plant) sets the price for each hour of production for all the production matched in the auction.'' So today's natural gas price sets the price for essentially zero cost hydro-electric electricity. Given the soaring price for natural gas, that is defining EU electricity costs. It's a diabolical pricing architecture that benefits speculators and destroys consumers, including households and industry.
    • A fundamental aggravating cause for the recent shortages of abundant coal, gas and oil is the decision by BlackRock and other global money trusts to force investment away from oil, gas or coal'--all perfectly safe and necessary energy sources'--to buildup of grossly inefficient and unreliable solar or wind. They call it ESG investing. It is the latest rage on Wall Street and other world financial markets ever since BlackRock CEO Larry Fink joined the Board of the Klaus Schwab World Economic Forum in 2019. They set up front ESG certifying companies that award ESG ''politically correct'' ratings on stock companies, and punishing those who do not comply. The rush into ESG investing has made billions for Wall Street and friends. It has also put the brakes on future development of oil, coal or natural gas for most of the world.
    • The 'German Disease'
    • Now after 20 years of foolish investment into solar and wind, Germany, the once-flagship of EU industry, is a victim of what we can call the German Disease. Like the economic Dutch Disease, the forced investment into Green Energy has resulted in the lack of reliable affordable energy. All for an unproven 1.5C claim of IPCC that is supposed to end our civilization by 2050 if we fail to reach Zero Carbon.
    • To advance that EU Green Energy agenda, country after country with a few exceptions have begun dismantling oil, gas and coal and even nuclear. Germany's last remaining nuclear plants will permanently close next year. New coal plants, with latest state-of-art scrubbers, are being scrapped even before being started.
    • The German case gets even more absurd.
    • In 2011 the Merkel government took an energy model developed by Martin Faulstich and the state Advisory Council on the Environment (SRU) which claimed that Germany could attain 100% renewable electricity generation by 2050. They argued that using nuclear longer would not be necessary, nor the construction of coal-fired plants with carbon capture and storage (CCS). With that, Merkel's catastrophic Energiewende was born. The study argued, it would work because Germany could contract to buy surplus, CO2-free, hydro-electric power from Norway and Sweden.
    • Now with extreme drought and a hot summer, the hydropower reserves of Sweden and Norway are dangerously low coming into winter, only 52% of capacity. That means the electric power cables to Denmark, Germany and now UK are in danger. And to make it worse, Sweden is split on shutting its own nuclear plants which give it 40% of electricity. And France is debating cutting as much as one-third of its clear nuclear plants meaning that source for Germany will also not be sure.
    • Already on January 1, 2021 because of a German government mandated coal phase-out, 11 coal-fired power plants with a total capacity of 4.7 GW were shut down. It lasted only 8 days when several of the coal plants had to be reconnected to the grid due to a prolonged low-wind period. In 2022 the last German nuclear plant will shut and more coal plants will permanently close, all for the green nirvana. In 2002 German nuclear power was source for 31% of power, carbon-free electric power.
    • As for wind power making up the deficit in Germany, in 2022 some 6000 wind turbines with an installed capacity of 16 GW will be dismantled due to the expiration of feed-in subsidies for older turbines. The rate of new wind farm approvals is being blocked by growing citizen rebellion and legal challenges to the noise pollution and other factors. An avoidable catastrophe is in the making.
    • The response from the EU Commission in Brussels, rather than admit the glaring flaws in their Green Energy agenda, has been to double down on it as if the problem were natural gas and coal. EU Climate Czar Frans Timmermans absurdly declared, ''Had we had the green deal five years earlier, we would not be in this position because then we would have less dependency on fossil fuels and natural gas.''
    • If the EU continues with that suicidal agenda, it will find itself in a deindustrialized wasteland in a few short years. The problem is not gas, coal or nuclear. It is the inefficient Green Energy from solar and wind that will never be able to offer stable, reliable power.
    • The Green Energy Agenda of the EU, US and other governments along with the Davos-promoted ESG investing will only guarantee that as we go forward there will be even less gas or coal or nuclear to fall back on when the wind stops, there is a drought in hydroelectric dams or lack of sunshine. It doesn't take a rocket scientist to realize this is a road to economic destruction. But that's in fact the goal of the UN 2030 ''sustainable'' energy or the Davos Great Reset: population reduction on a massive scale. We humans are the frogs being slowly boiled. And now the Powers That Be are really turning the heat up.
    • F. William Engdahl is strategic risk consultant and lecturer, he holds a degree in politics from Princeton University and is a best-selling author on oil and geopolitics, exclusively for the online magazine''New Eastern Outlook''
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  • Foundation asks for end to blackface ritual | Yle Uutiset | yle.fi
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    • Archived Version
    • Tue, 12 Oct 2021 14:45
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    • The three wise men have statues in the centre of Oulu. Image: Juha Virranniemi / YleA foundation has asked people to stop using blackface as part of the traditional 'Star Boys' performance, which tells the bible story of the three wise men and their role in Christian nativity plays.
    • The foundation said it had taken note of the reaction in wider society to racism, and wanted to show that it takes the message seriously.
    • Traditionally, one of the 'three kings' has worn blackface in the Oulu telling of the tale. The first record of this tradition dates back to 1873.
    • Originally groups of youths would travel around a district or area performing the story, asking for donations at the end of the performance. They were known as 'Tiernapojat', or 'Star Boys'.
    • Blackface has gained notoriety as a way for white actors to portray black characters in often stereotypical or offensive ways.
    • The Star Boy foundation (Tiernas¤¤ti¶ in Finnish) says that it would like those performing the ritual outside its own events to take note of its stance and change their ways.
    • The foundation had recommended that blackface not be used, and that the 'King of the Moors' character be renamed as 'King of the Mauris', after the popular Finnish male name, Mauri.
    • Now the organisation has said it will not allow blackface at its own events and recommends others follow its lead.
    • That entails darkening beards below the nose, but not full blackface '-- but only for male actors.
    • The foundation organises a Star Boy competition in Oulu city centre on the last weekend of November, where groups from across the country gather to compete.

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  • Intro: Swizz - School of Hard Knocks - 21 sec
  • Outro: George Benson + Sesame Street - The Greatest Love of All 4 sec

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