Moe Factz with Adam Curry for January 11th 2023, Episode number 89 - "Mass Confusion"

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  It's a New Year and that means More Fresh Fatcz for all of us!!
  I'm Adam Curry coming to you from the heart of The Texas Hill Country and it's time once again to spin the wheel of Topics from here to Northern Virginia, please say hello to my friend on the other end: Mr. Moe Factz
"Mass Confusion"
Description
  Adam and Moe lay out their take on Mass Formation
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Chapter Architect: Dreb Scott
Big Baller
  Benjamin Naidus
Executive Producers:
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  Anonymous
  Timothy LePes
  Katherine Bishop
  Brett Hahn
Associate Executive Producers
  Ariana Hartsock
  Jill Woods
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ShowNotes
  Produce Justice ® | Neely Fuller Jr's "Counter-Racist Code"
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    The United-Independent Compensatory Code/System/Concept Textbook by Neely Fuller Jr. ''$29.95
    Revised /Expanded Edition The United-Independent Compensatory Code/System/Concept (''The Compensatory Code'') is a term that means, when expressed in practice, the sum total of everything that is thought, said, or done by one individual Non-White person, who is a Victim of Racism [Victim of White Supremacy] that is effective in helping to eliminate Racism (White Supremacy), and/or in helping to ''make up'' for the lack of justice and correctness, in any one or more areas of activity, including Economics, Education, Entertainment, Labor, Law, Politics, Religion, Sex, and/or War/Counter-War.
    ORDER! A Compensatory Counter-Racist Word Guide$24.95
    The ''Word-Tools'' presented in this work are specifically intended to assist the user in thinking, speaking, and/or acting in a manner that best helps the process of replacing The System of White Supremacy (Racism) with The System of Justice (balance between people). According to Neely Fuller, there is reason to believe that the ''best language'' for any people to teach, learn, and use, is language that does the most to (1) guarantee that no person is mistreated; and (2) guarantee that the person who needs help the most, gets the most [constructive] help.
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    THE ORIGINAL VERSION OF THE ''CODE BOOK'' (Currently Available in 3-book Bundle Only)
    For a limited time only, order your keepsake copy of the original version of the code book.
    This limited-edition copy contains material not available in the revised/expanded edition. Many readers regard this book as the foundation of the code books by Neely Fuller.
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    What is the New Year and "Holidays" All About? - Neely Fuller Jr.
    Should Black Parents Beat Their Kids - Neely Fuller Jr
    Are Blacks Afraid of Whites? Neely Fuller Jr
    Is Religion and Afterlife the Ultimate Tranquilizer - Neely Fuller Jr
    Neely Fuller Jr - Buffalo Mass Shooting: "Business as Usual" Under the System of White Supremacy?
    Colorism, Purpose, Problem Solving - The Counter Racist Code with Neely Fuller Jr -
  Privilege Definition & Meaning - Merriam-Webster
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    : a right or immunity granted as a peculiar benefit, advantage, or favor : prerogative especially : such a right or immunity attached specifically to a position or an office
    transitive verb
    2
    : to accord a higher value or superior position to privilege one mode of discourse over another Synonyms Example Sentences Noun It is evolving into an elite institution, open chiefly to the well-educated few. In short, marriage is becoming yet another form of privilege . '-- Barbara Dafoe Whitehead , Commonweal , 2 Dec. 2005 The oldest of the students, she had become a confidante of Fern's and she alone was allowed to call her by her first name. It was not a privilege the others coveted. '-- Edward P. Jones , The Known World , 2003 But the two were grown in the same petri dish of power, prep school and privilege . '-- Howard Fineman , Newsweek , 16 Oct. 2000 Good health care should be a right and not a privilege. We had the privilege of being invited to the party. I had the privilege of knowing your grandfather. He lived a life of wealth and privilege. Verb The new tax laws unfairly privilege the rich. only professionals who meet the education and experience requirements set by law are privileged to use the title ''interior designer'' in Oklahoma See More Recent Examples on the WebNoun
    The privilege '-- written into the U.S. and California constitutions as well as the San Diego City Charter '-- often means that politicians must listen at public meetings while they are challenged over decisions like new taxes or development projects. '-- San Diego Union-Tribune, 24 Dec. 2022 Still, the right to vote remained a white, male privilege for decades. '-- Brittny Mejiastaff Writer, Los Angeles Times, 22 Dec. 2022 And the privilege of advising seven Presidents of the United States over almost 40 years. '-- Alice Park, Time, 20 Dec. 2022 During the one-hour conversation moderated by writer Pamela Cohn, Jain discussed her body of work, which looks at cultural constructs such as privilege, caste, class and gender, revealing their ubiquity in contemporary Indian society. '-- Addie Morfoot, Variety, 15 Nov. 2022 On July 14th, the Romanovs had unexpectedly been allowed the special privilege of a service, conducted for them at the Ipatiev House by a local priest, Father Ivan Storozhev. '-- Caroline Hallemann, Town & Country, 14 Nov. 2022 Until the pandemic struck, this shrine to privilege, paranoia, and American ingenuity sat mostly empty, providing abstract peace of mind to faraway owners. '-- Jenna Russell, BostonGlobe.com, 27 Oct. 2022 Glose's book is a privilege to read, a tribute to his comrades in war and peace, a divulgence of truth that gives necessary attention to veterans and their families. '-- Stefanie Milligan, The Christian Science Monitor, 19 Oct. 2022 But the prospect of being in the minority can suddenly make white identity '-- and all the historical privilege that comes with it '-- salient. '-- Rayna Reid Rayford, Essence, 11 Oct. 2022 Verb
    Later on in his piece, Cronon writes: Without our quite realizing it, wilderness tends to privilege some parts of nature at the expense of others. '-- Keith Kloor, Discover Magazine, 29 July 2011 Such provocative claims fly in the face of long-standing paradigms, many of which continue to privilege Anglophone actors. '-- Ned Blackhawk, Washington Post, 4 Oct. 2022 And their rules often privilege those already in power. '-- T.c. Sottek, The Verge, 7 Jan. 2021 Once again false narratives of Indian history are at play, narratives that privilege the majority and oppress minorities, and these narratives, let it be said, are popular, just as the Russian tyrant's lies are believed. '-- Lauren Markham, Harper's Magazine , 20 July 2022 In refusing to privilege human drama over natural processes, Hildyard captures the ecosystem's delicate interconnectedness and suggests a new way of writing about our toll on the environment. '-- The New Yorker, 15 Aug. 2022 Although there's no real reason to situate north at the top of maps, this eventually became the norm '-- explained in part by European mapmakers wanting to privilege their own positions in the world. '-- Nancy Lord, Anchorage Daily News, 23 July 2022 And the commitment went beyond a single show '-- part of Nicola's belief that directors are equal partners with playwrights in an American theater system that tends to privilege the latter. '-- New York Times, 13 July 2022 Continuing to privilege bigger firms and more established technology could hit extra hard as the Federal Reserve continues to raise interest rates in the name of combating inflation. '-- Kate Aronoff, The New Republic, 22 June 2022 See More These example sentences are selected automatically from various online news sources to reflect current usage of the word 'privilege.' Views expressed in the examples do not represent the opinion of Merriam-Webster or its editors. Send us feedback.
    Word HistoryEtymology
    Noun and Verb
    Middle English, from Anglo-French, from Latin privilegium law for or against a private person, from privus private + leg-, lex law
    First Known Use
    Noun
    12th century, in the meaning defined above
    Verb
    14th century, in the meaning defined at sense 1
    Time Traveler
    The first known use of privilege was in the 12th century Dictionary Entries Near privilege Cite this Entry ''Privilege.'' Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/privilege. Accessed 11 Jan. 2023.
    Share More from Merriam-Webster on privilege Last Updated: 27 Dec 2022 - Updated example sentencesLove words? Need even more definitions?
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    Merriam-Webster unabridged
  (16) diamond dead - Twitter Search / Twitter
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    Something went wrong, but don't fret '-- let's give it another shot.
  Violence Definition & Meaning - Merriam-Webster
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    1
    a : the use of physical force so as to injure, abuse, damage, or destroy
    b : an instance of violent treatment or procedure 2
    : injury by or as if by distortion, infringement, or profanation : outrage 3
    a : intense, turbulent, or furious and often destructive action or force the violence of the storm b : vehement feeling or expression : fervor also : an instance of such action or feeling
    4
    : undue alteration (as of wording or sense in editing a text)
    Last Updated: 3 Jan 2023 - Updated example sentencesSubscribe to America's largest dictionary and get thousands more definitions and advanced search'--ad free!
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  Jordan Maxwell | Esoteric Scholar
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    Jordan Maxwell continues as a preeminent researcher and independent scholar in the field of occult / religious philosophy. His interest in these subjects began as far back as 1959. He served for three and a half years as the Religion Editor of Truth Seeker Magazine, America's oldest Freethought Journal (since 1873). His work exploring the hidden foundations of Western religions and secret societies creates enthusiastic responses from audiences around the world.
    He has conducted dozens of intensive seminars, hosted his own radio talk shows, guested on more than 600 radio shows, and written, produced and appeared in numerous television shows and documentaries (including three 2-hour specials for the CBS TV network, as well as the internationally acclaimed 5-part Ancient Mystery Series - all devoted to understanding ancient religions and their pervasive influence on world affairs today.
    His work on the subject of secret societies, both ancient and modern, and their symbols, has fascinated audiences around the world for decades.
    Considering the rapidly moving events of today, and the very real part that hidden religious agendas play in our modern war-torn world, he feels these controversial subjects are not only interesting to explore, but too important to ignore! His extraordinary presentations includes documents and photographs seldom seen elsewhere. Jordans areas of interest include: * Astro-Theology * Sexual Symbolism in World Religions * Foundations for Modern-Day Religion * Secret Societies and Toxic Religion * World Mysteries: Ancient and Modern * Ancient Symbols and Occult Emblems * Ancient Sciences and Technology * Hidden Bible Teachings and Mysteries * The Sun in the History of Politics and Religion * The Story Your Church Doesn't Want You to Know * Secret Societies and their Influence on World Events
    Affiliations: A & S Research Inc. Vice President 2006 to Present
    Greater Los Angeles Press Club 1994 to Present Society of Professional Journalists 1993 to Present Borderlands Network Research Consultant and VP of Acquisitions 2003 to Present Truth Seeker Company, Inc. Religion Editor / Editorial Board Member 1991 to February 1998 United Sensitives of America Board of Directors 1989 to Present Ohana Council of the Native Hawaii Brotherhood Ambassador of the Sovereign Kingdom of Hawaii to America 1993 to Present Kronia Communications Group - Astro Physics Society Board of Advisors and Media Rep. 1995 to Present
    Seminars & Conferences
    Stargate of the Gods Solar Eclipse Egypt Tour 2006 Cairo, Egypt - Giza Plateau - Nile Tour March 25 - April 6, 2006 Featured Speaker (6 Hours)
    PQI Events 2006 Q3 International Conference Malta - Radisson SAS Golden Sands February 25 - March 5, 2006 Keynote & Featured Speaker (6 Hours)
    The Bay Area UFO Expo, August 2004 Santa Clara Convention Center Keynote Speaker Conspiracy Con 2004 Santa Clara Convention Center, May 2004 Featured Speaker (1 hour) Egypt Ancient Wisdom Tour 2004 Cairo - Giza Plateau - Nile Tour Featured Speaker (6 hours) Signs of Destiny II I Tempe, Arizona, Nov 21-23, 2003 Featured Speaker (2 hours) Conspiracy Con 2003 Santa Clara Convention Center, May 24-25, 2003 Featured Speaker (Saturday, 2 hours) Egypt in the New Millennium Giza Plateau, Egypt, May 9-18, 1999 Host and Speaker, International Millennial conference at the Great Pyramid of Giza Lapis Conferences Manchester, Blackpool, and York, England, October 1998 Keynote Speaker and Lecturer, "The Gods of Ancient Theologies" (2 hours) Kronia Astro-Physics World Conference Portland, Oregon, January 3-5, 1997 Co-host, MC and Panel Moderator, "Planetary Violence in Human History" The Third Annual Bay Area UFO Expo Santa Clara Convention Center, Sept. 14-16, 2001 Featured Speaker Conspiracy Con 2001 Santa Clara Convention Center, May 26-27, 2001 Keynote Speaker (Saturday 2-hours - Sunday 2-hours) CIRAEP Need-To-Know Seminar Philadelphia, PA, May 6-7 & July 15-16, 2000 Appeared with Preston Nichols and Al Bielek The Bay Area UFO Expo Santa Clara Convention Center, California, Aug. 1999 Keynote Speaker International UFO Congress Mosquite, Nevada, Oct. 1999 Conference opening Keynote Speaker Area 51 Rachel, NV, August 1996 "Occult Symbols in the Church Today" (2 hours) Whole Life Expo Los Angeles, California, October 1995 with Comedian/Musician Steve Allen and KABC newsman Bill Jenkins "Church, State, and Toxic Religion" (2 hours) Whole Life Expo Los Angeles, California, May 1995 with Comedian/Musician Steve Allen and KABC newsman Bill Jenkins "Secret Societies and Ancient Religion" (2 hours) International UFO Congress Mosquite, Nevada, Dec. 1994 Speaker (2 hours) Global Sciences, 13th Annual Congress Denver, Colorado, August 1995 "The Future Belongs to Those Who Are Prepared for It" One 1-hour lecture, and two 2-hour workshops Area 51 Rachel, Nevada, December 1994 "Occult Religion and Hidden Symbols" (3 hours) Sui Juris Coalition Ward Center, Hawaii, September 1994 "Ancient Influences on Modern Religions" (6 hours) Italian American Friendship Club Las Vegas, Nevada, July 1994 "The Hidden History of Religion" (2 hours) Zulu Nations/Abbey Entertainment Hollywood, California, July 1994 "Egypt, Light of the World" (3 hours) The Breakfast Club (sponsor) Las Vegas, Nevada, October 1993 "Hidden Influences in Our Government" (3 hours) Sui Juris Coalition Paki-Hale, Oahu, Hawaii, October 1993 "Secret Societies and their Influence on World Governments" (4 hours) Sui Juris Coalition Kona, Hawaii, September 1993 "The Truth About the Separation of Church and State" (4 hours) Black and Latino Multicultural Center Pasadena, California, 1993 - 1996 "Ancient Origins of Religions" Nine 3-hour presentations Global Deception Seminar Wembley Arena, London, England, January 1993 sponsored by Nightlink Communications Company (invited speaker) Privately Produced Seminar Los Angeles, California, Nov. and Dec. of 1992 "The Greatest Story Never Told", co-hosted with Zears Miles (6 hours) Self-produced Seminar Palmdale, California, December 1992 "More Than Meets the Eye" (4 hours) Private Seminar Los Angeles, California, July 1992 "What Your Church Didn't Tell You", with KABC News Reporter Bill Jenkins (4 hours) International Research and Education Society (sponsor) Los Angeles, California, 1991 "Secret Societies in Religion and Politics",with KABC newsman Bill Jenkins (5 hours) Privately sponsored, invitation-only seminar company San Francisco, California, June 1991 "The Greatest Story Never Told" (8 hours) Influence of Secret Societies on the Church Private Seminar Los Angeles, CA, Feb. 1989
    Lectures
    University of Hawaii Honolulu, Hawaii, May 1996 for Hawaiian Humanist Association "The Religion of Church and State" (3 Hours) University of Georgia Atlanta, Georgia, April 1995 "Church, State, and the Occult" (3-hour Lecture) University of Southern California Los Angeles, California, March 1995 "Politics and Religion, the Two Hands" (3-hour Lecture) University of California at Los Angeles Los Angeles, California, March 1995 "Occult Theology - Modern Religion" (2-hour Lecture) University of California at Santa Barbara Santa Barbara, California, March 1994 "What the Church Did Not Tell You" (2-hour Lecture) Ventura College Ventura, California, March 1995 "The Story the Church Didn't Tell You!" (3-hour Lecture) Century City Rotary Club Century Plaza Hotel, Beverly Hills, Ca, Aug 1994 "The Law of God" (1-hour Lecture) Brain Mind Symposium Los Angeles, California, June 1993 and July 1994 "Ancient Mysteries of the Bible" (Lecture and 2-hour Workshop) Humanist Association of Los Angeles University of California at Los Angeles, March 1994 "The Truth Behind State-Church Separation" (3-hour Lecture) International UFO Congress Laughlin, Nevada, December 1994 and August 1998 "Secrets of the Bible" (1-hour Lecture) Whole Life Expo Los Angeles, California, November 1994"The Story Your Church Didn't Tell You "(Lecture and 2-hour Workshop) Whole Life Expo Las Vegas, Nevada, October 1994 "The Story Your Church Didn't Tell You" (Lecture and 2-hour Workshop) Whole Life Expo San Diego, California, September 1994 "Hidden Secrets of Western Religion" (Lecture and 2-hour Workshop) Extraordinary Research Expo Los Angeles, California, September 1994 "Secret Societies and World Mysteries" (Lecture and 2-hour Workshop) National New Age Conference Phoenix-Mesa, Arizona, September 1994 "The Occult and Secret Societies" (Lecture and 2-hour Workshop) Republican Candidates for Nevada Fund Raiser Las Vegas, Nevada, July 1994 "Something's Wrong with the System" (1 hour) Psynetics Foundation Anaheim, California, March 1994 and June 1994 "The Story Your Church Doesn't Want You to Know" (2-hour lecture) Antiquarian Book Fair Burbank, California, May 1994 "Astral Theology and Religious Cults" (Lecture and 2-hour Workshop) UFO Expo West Los Angeles, California, June 1993 and May 1994 "Religion, Politics, and the Occult Connection" (Lecture and 2-hour Workshop) Whole Life Expo Los Angeles, California, April 1994 "Hidden Secrets of Western Religion" (Lecture and 2-hour Workshop) National Health Federation Annual Conference Pasadena, California, February 1994 "Ancient Influences on Modern Government" (1-hour Lecture) Whole Life Expo Los Angeles, California, June 1993 "Ancient Origins of Religion" (Lecture and 2-hour Workshop) Whole Life Expo Pasadena, California, March 1993 "Ancient Foundations of Religion" (Lecture and 2-hour Workshop) National New Age Conference San Diego, California, March 1993 "Religion, Politics, and the Occult Connection" (Lecture and 2-hour Workshop) Atheists United Marina del Rey, California, February 1993 "Messianic Cults" (2-hour Lecture) Look Within Books Arcadia, California, all in 1993 * "Basic Slide Presentation" (3-hour Lecture) * "The Story Your Church Didn't Tell You" (3-hour Lecture) * "Occult Influences on Religion" (3-hour Lecture) * "Religion, Politics, and the Occult Connection" (3-hour Lecture) National Health Federation Annual Conference Pasadena, California,January 1993 "Secret Societies and World Government" (1-hour Lecture) Whole Life Expo San Diego, California, June 1993 "Ancient Foundations of Modern-Day Religion" (Lecture and 2-hour Workshop) Need to Know Seminar Civilian Intelligence Network, Arcadia, California, June 1992 "Occult Symbols of Government" (2-hour Lecture) Need to Know Seminar Civilian Intelligence Network, Garden Grove, California, April 1992 "Hidden Influences of Religion and Government" (1-hour Lecture) Whole Life Expo Los Angeles, California, 1992 "Hidden Sciences and Technologies" (lecture and 2-hour Workshop) Whole Life Expo Pasadena, California, February 1991 "Signs and Symbols of Ancient Man" (Lecture and 2-hour Workshop) Masonic Lodge of La Crescenta La Crescenta, California, February 1991 "Understanding the New Age" (2-hour Lecture)
    Motion Pictures
    Man of Faith 7 Spirits Entertainment with Faye Dunaway Robert Wagner William McNamara Brad Dourif and introducing Jordan Maxwell
    Earth's Original Sin (2010) Un-Named Productions
    Publications
    Articles Written by Jordan Maxwell
    Esoteric Christianity Astro-Theology, the Hidden Church New Dawn Magazine Melbourne, Australia February 2002 Astro-Theology Retelling an Ancient Story Exposure Magazine Queensland, Australia February 1999 God the Son Worship of the Heavens Whole Life Times Los Angeles, California April 1994 Seeking the Truth Rancho Bernardo Sun San Diego, CA June 1996 Symbols Part One Truthseeker Magazine San Diego, CA May 1996
    Articles Written About Jordan Maxwell
    Cross(Reference)ing Jordan: Scholars at Conspiracy Con React to a UFO Magazine Article and the Work of Jordan Maxwell UFO Magazine Marina Del Rey, California May 2007 Volume 22 No 5
    Hollywood Stars: Their Magical Powers Leyed Bare UFO Magazine Marina del Ray, California May 2006 Volume 21 Basic Slide Presentation Atlantis Rising Livingston, Montana March/April 2004 Matrix of Power Namaste Shrewsbury, England Vol. 6 Issue 3 March 2004 Doing His Own Homework Atlantis Rising Livingston, Montana December 2003 FBI - Paranoid Pleasures Fortean Times London, England September 2001 Trend Territory Bay Area UFO Expo UFO Magazine Los Angeles, California November 1999 The Secret World of Freemasons Fate Magazine St. Paul, Minnesota September 1997
    Radio Interviews
    The following is a just small sampling of over 600 radio interviews Coast to Coast AM With George Noory Premiere Radio Network 2 hours, April 2005
    Coast to Coast AM With George Noory Premiere Radio Network 3 hours, March 2004 The Bob Grant Show WABC Radio, New York 2 hours, December 1991 The Tom Leykis Show KFI Radio Los Angeles, California 2 hours, 1991 The Art Bell Show "Dreamland", Pahrump, Nevada Premiere Radio Network 3 hours, 1995 NPR - Morning Edition National Public Radio Washington, DC May 1995 The Doug Stephen Show KABC Radio, Los Angeles, California 2-hour show, 1996 The Ray Bream Show KABC AM, with co-guest KABC newsman Bill Jenkins Los Angeles, California 3-hour show, 1994 The Peter Weisback Show KOGO Radio, with host Peter Weisback, San Diego, California 1-hour show, April 1996 The Jeff Rense Show Sightings Radio Network Seven 90 minute shows from 1997 to 2001 The Roy of Hollywood Show with co-guest Astronaut Edgar Mitchell and KABC newsman Bill Jenkins KPFK, LA, California 2-hour show, 1993 Marian Bistriceanu Show Societatea Romana de Radiodifuziune (National Romanian Network Radio) Bucuresti, Romania 30 minute interview Sci-Zone hosted by Bill Boshears, WLW Radio, Cincinnati, Ohio Two 1-hour shows The Lou Epton Show KLAV Radio Las Vegas, Nevada Eight 2-hour shows, 1996 - 1999 Main Street America hosted by KABC news anchor Bill Jenkins Los Angeles, California Two 2 hour shows, 1995 The Bruce Fisher Show KGU AM, Honolulu, Hawaii 1 hour show, 1994 The Don Smith Show K108 AM, Honolulu, Hawaii Two 1-hour shows, 1994 Timeless Voyager Radio Toronto, Canada Syndicated Six 1-hour shows, 1993-1994 Voices on the Wind hosted by Ivy West, K108 AM Honolulu, Hawaii Eight 2-hour shows, 1993 The Stan Johnson Show Syndicated shows Topeka, Kansas Two 1-hour shows, 1993 The Other Side of Religion hosted by Bruce Steven Holmes, KUSB FM University of California at Santa Barbara 1 hour show, 1993 Vortex Network hosted by Michael El Legion, KIEV Radio, Los Angeles, California Three 2 hour shows, 1992-1993 The Hour of the Time hosted by William Cooper, satellite network and short-wave Two 1-hour shows, 1993 Family Tree Show hosted by Marcus Lewis, KPFK, Los Angeles, California Three 90-minute shows and one 2-hour show, 1992 The Bottom Line hosted by Dr. Roy Muddey, nationally syndicated radio, Beverly Hills, California Two 1-hour shows, 1992 Ebony "92" hosted by Ms. Gerta Steel Pasadena City College Radio, KPCC FM, Pasadena, California 1-hour show, 1992 Radio Free America Network with Anthony J. Hilder Three 2-hour shows, 1991
    Television Tamasha International Network Persian Television , Iran 1 hour interview, 2004 Holy Conflict Seven Spirits Entertainmenthosted by Robert Wagner with Jordan Maxwell90 minute television show, 2002 Encounters with the Unexplained PAX TV NetworkOn-screen Expert Witness1-hour show - July 2001 Atlantis The Learning Channel / Of Like Mind ProductionsHollywood, CaliforniaOn-screen Expert Witness1-hour show - March 2001 Area 51 Revisited Discovery Channel / Termite Art Productions Studio City, CaliforniaOn-screen Expert Witness1-hour show - Feb 2001 In Search Of Fox TV Network with ISO ProductionUniversal Studios, Orlando FLOn-screen Expert and Research Consultant1-hour show - Dec 2000 Year 2000 Apropos Film, ZDF (Germany) and ORF (Austria)Featured Guest and On-screen Expert 1-hour television special, December 1999 The New Apocalypse: Mankind's Last Exodus Madacy Entertainment GroupSt. Laurent, Quebec, CanadaOn-screen Expert and Research Consultant 1-hour show, December 1999 Strange Universe UPN Network / Rysher ProductionsOn-screen Expert and Research Consultant, 1999 Ancient Secrets of the Bible, Part 1 CBS Television NetworkOn-screen Expert and Research Consultant 2-hour special, May 1992 Ancient Secrets of the Bible, Part 2 CBS Television NetworkOn-screen Expert and Research Consultant 2-hour special, May 1993 Ancient Mysteries of The World, Part 3 CBS Television NetworkOn-screen Expert and Research Consultant2-hour special, May 1994 Another Point of View interview with Jordan Maxwell and comedian/musician Steve AllenSanta Monica, California1-hour show, January 1998 Past, Present, and Future hosted by Elvira Bohle,Santa Barbara Cable (California) Š(8 1-hour shows, 1992-1995) Mars Hill Show Channel 33, Long Beach, California* "Is America a Christian Nation?" (1-hour show, 1993)* "Ancient Mysteries" (1-hour show, 1993)* "Lucifer 2000"Jordan Maxwell interview (two 1-hour shows, 1993) Book Beat hosted by Rita Dyson, Channel 56, KDOC, Orange County* "Secret Societies, Past and Present" (30-minute show, March 1994)* "Storm of the Century" (30-minute show, March 1994)* "The Church and State Affair" (30-minute show, 1993)* "Ancient Influences on Modern Religion" (30-minute show, 1993) Superstitions hosted by Loren Peck, Channel 33, Long Beach, California1-hour show, 1993 OLELO-TV hosted by Ivy West, Honolulu, Hawaii Four 2-hour shows and four 30-minute shows, Fall 1993 Age of Reason hosted by Jonathan Bogg, Paragon Cable TelevisionOrange County, CA1991, two 1-hour shows Videos produced by Jordan Maxwell
    Symbols, Sex and the Stars - Parts I, II and III written and narrated by Jordan Maxwell 1998, 90 minute, 60 minute, 90 minute videos Jordan Maxwell on Religion and Politics 1998, 90 minute video Astrological Prophecy and World Events produced for Arizona Television Dr. Louis Turi and Jordan Maxwell 1995, 1 hour show
    Religion, Reality and Cosmic Awareness Lecture and Slide Presentation Written and narrated by Jordan Maxwell 90 Minutes. 1992 The Naked Truth - Part 1 aka The Hidden Truth * written by Jordan Maxwell hosted by British TV journalist, Derek Partridge broadcast on KCLA-TV (Channel 9) in Los Angeles, and New York City produced for the International Research and Educational Society 1991, 1 hour show The Naked Truth - Part 2 * Written by Jordan Maxwell With British TV journalist, Derek Partridge and KABC newsman, Bill Jenkins produced for the International Research and Education Society 2 hour show, 1991 Egypt - Light of the World * Written and narrated by Jordan Maxwell produced for the International Research and Education Society 1 hour show, 1992
    Ancient Belief Systems * Written and narrated by Jordan Maxwell produced for the International Research and Education Society 1 hour show, 1992 Matrix of Power * Written and narrated by Jordan Maxwell produced for the International Research and Education Society 1 hour show, 1992 * Jordan Maxwell is no longer affiliated in any way with IRES Co., producers of the Naked Truth series.
    The following videos were produced by Jordan Maxwell between the years of 1992 and 2005. Click on each title for more information.
    Ancient Religious History
    The Dark Side
    Basic Slide Presentation
    Chief Cornerstone
    Egypt in the New Millenium
    Magic Dominates the World
    Private Interview With Zecharia Sitchin
    Signs of Destiny
    Sons of God
    Toxic Religion
    Secret Societies & Word Meanings
    The Bible, End Times & Prehistory
    Other videos featuring Jordan Maxwell Zeitgeist: The Movie (Viewed by over 100,000,000 people)
    UFOs: Past Present & Future
    The Book Your Church Doesn't Want You to Read: The Video
    Ancient Secrets of the Bible, Part 1 CBS Television Network On-screen Expert and Research Consultant 2-hour special, May 1992 Ancient Secrets of the Bible, Part 2 CBS Television Network On-screen Expert and Research Consultant 2-hour special, May 1993 Ancient Mysteries of The World, Part 3 CBS Television Network On-screen Expert and Research Consultant 2-hour special, May 1994
    The New Apocalypse: Mankind's Last Exodus
    Millenium 2000
  Covenant Of Salt Definition and Meaning - Bible Dictionary
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    COVENANT OF SALT
    solt (berith melach; halas, classical Greek hals):
    As salt was regarded as a necessary ingredient of the daily food, and so of all sacrifices offered to Yahweh (Leviticus 2:13), it became an easy step to the very close connection between salt and covenant-making. When men ate together they became friends. Compare the Arabic expression, "There is salt between us"; "He has eaten of my salt," which means partaking of hospitality which cemented friendship; compare "eat the salt of the palace" (Ezra 4:14). Covenants were generally confirmed by sacrificial meals and salt was always present. Since, too, salt is a preservative, it would easily become symbolic of an enduring covenant. So offerings to Yahweh were to be by a statute forever, "a covenant of salt for ever before Yahweh" (Numbers 18:19). David received his kingdom forever from Yahweh by a "covenant of salt" (2 Chronicles 13:5). In the light of these conceptions the remark of our Lord becomes the more significant: "Have salt in yourselves, and be at peace one with another" (Mark 9:50).
    Edward Bagby Pollard
  Covenant of salt - Wikipedia
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    The phrase covenant of salt appears twice in the Hebrew Bible:
    In the Book of Numbers, God's covenant with the Aaronic priesthood is said to be a covenant of salt.[1] In the second book of Chronicles, God's covenant with the Davidic kings of Israel is also described as a covenant of salt.[2] According to the New Oxford Annotated Bible, "of salt" most likely means that the covenant is "a perpetual covenant, because of the use of salt as a preservative".[3]
    The commandments regarding grain offerings in the Book of Leviticus state "every offering of your grain offering you shall season with salt; you shall not allow the salt of the covenant of your God to be lacking from your grain offering. With all your offerings you shall offer salt."[4]
    See also [ edit ] Bread and saltReferences [ edit ] ^ Numbers 18:19 ^ 2 Chronicles 13:5 ^ Marc Brettler; Carol Newsom; Pheme Perkins, eds. (1 March 2018). The New Oxford Annotated Bible: New Revised Standard Version. Oxford University Press. p. 370. ISBN 978-0-19-027606-5. ^ Leviticus 2:13
  Benjamin Rush - Wikipedia
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    American Founding Father physician, educator, and author (1746''1813)
    Benjamin Rush
    Born ( 1746-01-04 ) January 4, 1746DiedApril 19, 1813 (1813-04-19) (aged 67)Resting placeChrist Church Burial Ground, PhiladelphiaAlma materPrinceton UniversityUniversity of EdinburghOccupation(s)Physician, writer, educator, medical doctorKnown forSigner of the United States Declaration of IndependenceChildren13, including Richard and JamesBenjamin Rush (January 4, 1746 [O.S. December 24, 1745] '' April 19, 1813) was a Founding Father of the United States who signed the United States Declaration of Independence, and a civic leader in Philadelphia, where he was a physician, politician, social reformer, humanitarian, educator, and the founder of Dickinson College. Rush was a Pennsylvania delegate to the Continental Congress.[1] His later self-description there was: "He aimed right."[2][3] He served as surgeon general of the Continental Army and became a professor of chemistry, medical theory, and clinical practice at the University of Pennsylvania.[4]
    Rush was a leader of the American Enlightenment and an enthusiastic supporter of the American Revolution. He was a leader in Pennsylvania's ratification of the U.S. Constitution in 1788. He was prominent in many reforms, especially in the areas of medicine and education. He opposed slavery, advocated free public schools, and sought improved, but patriarchal,[5] education for women, and a more enlightened penal system. As a leading physician, Rush had a major impact on the emerging medical profession. As an Enlightenment intellectual, he was committed to organizing all medical knowledge around explanatory theories, rather than rely on empirical methods. Rush argued that illness was the result of imbalances in the body's physical system and was caused by malfunctions in the brain. His approach prepared the way for later medical research, but Rush undertook none of it. He promoted public health by advocating clean environment and stressing the importance of personal and military hygiene. His study of mental disorder made him one of the founders of American psychiatry.[6] In 1965, the American Psychiatric Association recognized Rush as the "father of American psychiatry".[7]
    Early life and career [ edit ] Coat of Arms of Benjamin Rush
    The birthplace of Benjamin Rush, photographed in 1959.
    Rush was born to John Rush and Susanna Hall on January 4, 1746 (December 24, 1745 O.S.). The family, of English descent,[8] lived on a farm in the Township of Byberry in Philadelphia County, about 14 miles outside of Philadelphia (the township was incorporated into Philadelphia in 1854). Rush was the fourth of seven children. His father died in July 1751 at age 39, leaving his mother, who ran a country store, to care for the family. At age eight, Benjamin was sent to live with an aunt and uncle to receive an education.[9] He and his older brother Jacob[10] attended a school run by Reverend Samuel Finley, which later became West Nottingham Academy.
    In 1760, after further studies at the College of New Jersey (which in 1895 changed its name to its present name, Princeton University), Rush graduated with a Bachelor of Arts degree at age fourteen. From 1761 to 1766, Rush apprenticed under Dr. John Redman in Philadelphia. Redman encouraged him to further his studies at the University of Edinburgh in Scotland, where Rush studied from 1766 to 1768 and earned an M. D. degree.[11][12][13]:'Š60'Š [14]:'Š40'Š Rush became fluent in French, Italian, and Spanish as a result of his studies and European tour. While at Edinburgh, he became a friend of the Earl of Leven and his family, including William Leslie.[13]:'Š51''52'Š
    Returning to the Colonies in 1769, Rush opened a medical practice in Philadelphia and became professor of chemistry at the College of Philadelphia (which in 1791 changed its name to its present name, University of Pennsylvania).[15] After his election to the revived American Philosophical Society in 1768, Rush served as the society's curator from 1770 to 1773, as secretary from 1773 to 1773, and vice president from 1797 to 1801.[16] Rush ultimately published the first American textbook on chemistry and several volumes on medical student education and wrote influential patriotic essays.[14]
    Revolutionary period [ edit ] Rush was active in the Sons of Liberty and was elected to attend the provincial conference to send delegates to the Continental Congress. Thomas Paine consulted Rush when writing the profoundly influential pro-independence pamphlet Common Sense. Starting in 1776, Rush represented Pennsylvania and signed the Declaration of Independence.[1] He also represented Philadelphia at Pennsylvania's own Constitutional Convention.[1]
    In an 1811 letter to John Adams, Rush recounted in stark fashion the signing of the Declaration of Independence. He described it as a scene of "pensive and awful silence". Rush said the delegates were called up, one after another, and then filed forward somberly to subscribe what each thought was their ensuing death warrant.[17] He related that the "gloom of the morning" was briefly interrupted when the rotund Benjamin Harrison of Virginia said to a diminutive Elbridge Gerry of Massachusetts, at the signing table, "I shall have a great advantage over you, Mr. Gerry, when we are all hung for what we are now doing. From the size and weight of my body I shall die in a few minutes and be with the Angels, but from the lightness of your body you will dance in the air an hour or two before you are dead."[17] According to Rush, Harrison's remark "procured a transient smile, but it was soon succeeded by the Solemnity with which the whole business was conducted."[17]
    While Rush was representing Pennsylvania in the Continental Congress (and serving on its medical committee), he also used his medical skills in the field. Rush accompanied the Philadelphia militia during the battles after which the British occupied Philadelphia and most of New Jersey. He was depicted serving in the Battle of Princeton in the painting The Death of General Mercer at the Battle of Princeton, January 3, 1777 by the American artist John Trumbull.[18]
    The Army Medical Service was in disarray, between the military casualties, extremely high losses from typhoid, yellow fever and other camp illnesses, political conflicts between Dr. John Morgan and Dr. William Shippen, Jr., and inadequate supplies and guidance from the medical committee.[19]:'Š29''43,'Š65''92'Š Nonetheless, Rush accepted an appointment as surgeon-general of the middle department of the Continental Army. Rush's order "Directions for preserving the health of soldiers" became one of the foundations of preventive military medicine and was repeatedly republished, including as late as 1908.[20][21]:'Š36''41'Š However, Rush's reporting of Dr. Shippen's misappropriation of food and wine supplies intended to comfort hospitalized soldiers, under-reporting of patient deaths, and failure to visit the hospitals under his command, ultimately led to Rush's resignation in 1778.
    Controversy [ edit ] Rush criticized General George Washington in two handwritten but unsigned letters while still serving under the surgeon general. One, to Virginia Governor Patrick Henry dated October 12, 1778, quotes General Thomas Conway saying that if not for God's grace the ongoing war would have been lost by Washington and his weak counselors. Henry forwarded the letter to Washington, despite Rush's request that the criticism be conveyed orally, and Washington recognized the handwriting. At the time, the supposed Conway Cabal was reportedly trying to replace Washington with Horatio Gates as commander-in-chief.[14]:'Š133''34'Š Rush's letter relayed General John Sullivan's criticism that forces directly under Washington were undisciplined and mob-like, and contrasted Gates' army as "a well-regulated family".[22]:'Š212''215'Š Ten days later, Rush wrote to John Adams relaying complaints inside Washington's army, including about "bad bread, no order, universal disgust" and praising Conway, who had been appointed to inspector general.[14]:'Š136''37'Š
    Dr. Shippen sought Rush's resignation and received it by the end of the month after Continental Congress delegate John Witherspoon, chairman of a committee to investigate Morgan's and Rush's charges of misappropriation and mismanagement against Shippen, told Rush his complaints would not produce reform.[13]:'Š219''20'Š Rush later expressed regret for his gossip against Washington. In a letter to John Adams in 1812, Rush wrote, "He [Washington] was the highly favored instrument whose patriotism and name contributed greatly to the establishment of the independence of the United States." Rush also successfully pleaded with Washington's biographers Justice Bushrod Washington and Chief Justice John Marshall to delete his association with those stinging words.[14]:'Š137'Š
    In his 2005 book 1776, David McCullough quotes Rush, referring to George Washington:
    The Philadelphia physician and patriot Benjamin Rush, a staunch admirer, observed that Washington "has so much martial dignity in his deportment that you would distinguish him to be a general and a soldier from among 10,000 people. There is not a king in Europe that would not look like a valet de chambre by his side."[23]
    Post-Revolution [ edit ] In 1783, he was appointed to the staff of Pennsylvania Hospital, and he remained a member until his death. He was elected to the Pennsylvania convention which adopted the Federal constitution and was appointed treasurer of the United States Mint, serving from 1797 to 1813.[1] He was elected a fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1788.[24]
    He became a professor of medical theory and clinical practice at the University of Pennsylvania in 1791, though the quality of his medicine was quite primitive even for the time: he advocated bloodletting for almost any illness, long after its practice had declined. While teaching at the University of Pennsylvania, one of his students was future president William Henry Harrison, who took a chemistry class from Rush.[25] He became a social activist and an abolitionist and was the most well-known physician in America at the time of his death.
    He was also founder of Dickinson College in Carlisle, Pennsylvania. In 1794, he was elected a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. In the 1793 Philadelphia yellow fever epidemic, Rush treated patients with bleeding, calomel, and other early medicinal techniques that often were ineffective and actually brought many patients closer to their deathbeds. Rush's ideas on yellow fever treatments differed from those of many experienced French doctors, who came from the West Indies where they had yellow fever outbreaks every year.
    Rush was a founding member of the Philadelphia Society for Alleviating the Miseries of Public Prisons (known today as the Pennsylvania Prison Society[26]), which greatly influenced the construction of Eastern State Penitentiary in Philadelphia.[27] He supported Thomas Jefferson for president in 1796 over the eventual winner, John Adams.[28]
    Corps of Discovery [ edit ] In 1803, Jefferson sent Meriwether Lewis to Philadelphia to prepare for the Lewis and Clark Expedition under the tutelage of Rush, who taught Lewis about frontier illnesses and the performance of bloodletting. Rush provided the corps with a medical kit that included:
    Turkish opium for nervousnessemetics to induce vomitingmedicinal winefifty dozen of Dr. Rush's Bilious Pills, laxatives containing more than 50% mercury, which have since colloquially been referred to as "thunderclappers." Their meat-rich diet and lack of clean water during the expedition gave the men cause to use them frequently. Although their efficacy is questionable, their high mercury content provided an excellent tracer by which archaeologists have been able to track the corps' actual route to the Pacific.[29][30][31]Reforms [ edit ] Anti-slavery [ edit ] In 1766, when Rush set out for his studies in Edinburgh, he was outraged by the sight of 100 slave ships in Liverpool harbor. As a prominent Presbyterian doctor and professor of chemistry in Philadelphia, he provided a bold and respected voice against the slave trade.[32] He warmly praised the ministry of "Black Harry" Hosier, the freedman circuit rider who accompanied Bishop Francis Asbury during the establishment of the Methodist Church in America,[33] but the highlight of his involvement was the pamphlet he wrote in 1773 entitled "An Address to the Inhabitants of the British Settlements in America, upon Slave-Keeping." In this first of his many attacks on the social evils of his day, he assailed the slave trade as well as the entire institution of slavery. Rush argued scientifically that Negroes were not by nature intellectually or morally inferior. Any apparent evidence to the contrary was only the perverted expression of slavery, which "is so foreign to the human mind, that the moral faculties, as well as those of the understanding are debased, and rendered torpid by it."[34]
    Anti-capital punishment [ edit ] Rush deemed public punishments such as putting a person on display in stocks, common at the time, to be counterproductive. Instead, he proposed private confinement, labor, solitude, and religious instruction for criminals, and he opposed the death penalty.[35] His outspoken opposition to capital punishment pushed the Pennsylvania legislature to abolish the death penalty for all crimes other than first-degree murder.[4] He authored a 1792 treatise on punishing murder by death in which he made three principal arguments:[36]
    I. Every man possesses an absolute power over his own liberty and property, but not over his own life...II. The punishment of murder by death, is contrary to reason, and to the order and happiness of society...III. The punishment of murder by death, is contrary to divine revelation.Rush led the state of Pennsylvania to establish the first state penitentiary, the Walnut Street Prison, in 1790. Rush campaigned for long-term imprisonment, the denial of liberty, as both the most humane but severe punishment.[37] This 1792 treatise was preceded by comments on the efficacy of the death penalty that he self-references and which, evidently, appeared in the second volume of the American Museum.[36]
    Status of women [ edit ] After the Revolution, Rush proposed a new model of education for elite women that included English language, vocal music, dancing, sciences, bookkeeping, history, and moral philosophy. He was instrumental to the founding of the Young Ladies' Academy of Philadelphia, the first chartered women's institution of higher education in Philadelphia.[38] Rush saw little need for training women in metaphysics, logic, mathematics, or advanced science; rather he wanted the emphasis on guiding women toward moral essays, poetry, history, and religious writings. This type of education for elite women grew dramatically during the post-revolutionary period, as women claimed a role in creating the Republic. And so, the ideal of Republican motherhood emerged, lauding women's responsibility of instructing the young in the obligations of patriotism, the blessings of liberty and the true meaning of Republicanism. He opposed coeducational classrooms and insisted on the need to instruct all youth in the Christian religion.[39]
    Medical contributions [ edit ] Physical medicine [ edit ] Rush was a leading proponent of heroic medicine. He firmly believed in such practices as bloodletting patients[40] (a practice now known to be generally harmful,[41] but at the time common practice), as well as purges using calomel and other toxic substances. In his report on the Philadelphia yellow fever epidemic of 1793, Rush wrote: "I have found bleeding to be useful, not only in cases where the pulse was full and quick but where it was slow and tense. I have bled twice in many and in one acute case four times, with the happiest effect. I consider intrepidity in the use of the lancet, at present, to be necessary, as it is in the use of mercury and jalap, in this insidious and ferocious disease." During that epidemic, Rush gained acclaim for remaining in town and treating sometimes 100 patients per day (some through freed black volunteers coordinated by Richard Allen), but many died. Even Rush acknowledged the failure of two treatments, sweats in vinegar-wrapped blankets accompanied by mercury rubs, and cold baths.[22]:'Š329'Š
    William Cobbett vociferously objected to Rush's extreme use of bloodletting, and even in Rush's day and location, many physicians had abandoned on scientific grounds this favorite remedy of Rush's former teachers Thomas Sydenham and Hermann Boerhaave.[14]:'Š223''31'Š Cobbett accused Rush of killing more patients than he had saved. Rush ultimately sued Cobbett for libel, winning a judgment of $5,000 and $3,000 in court costs, which was only partially paid before Cobbett returned to England.[14]:'Š239''47'Š Nonetheless, Rush's practice waned as he continued to advocate bloodletting and purges, much to the chagrin of his friend Thomas Jefferson.[42][43][14]:'Š296'Š Some even blamed Rush's bleeding for hastening the death of Benjamin Franklin, as well as George Washington (although the only one of Washington's medics who opposed the bleeding was Rush's former student), and Rush insisted upon being bled himself shortly before his death (as he had during the yellow fever epidemic two decades earlier).[22]:'Š331,'Š363'Š [14]:'Š220,'Š295'Š
    Rush also wrote the first case report on dengue fever (published in 1789 on a case from 1780).[44] Perhaps his greatest contributions to physical medicine were his establishment of a public dispensary for low income patients, and public works associated with draining and rerouting Dock Creek (eliminating mosquito breeding grounds, which greatly decreased typhus, typhoid and cholera outbreaks).
    Another of Rush's medical views that now draws criticism is his analysis of race. In reviewing the case of Henry Moss, a slave who lost his dark skin color (probably through vitiligo), Rush characterized being black as a hereditary and curable skin disease. Rush wrote that the "disease, instead of inviting us [whites] to tyrannise over them [blacks], it should entitle them to a double portion of our humanity." He added that this "should teach white people the necessity of keeping up that prejudice against [miscegenation], as it would tend to infect posterity with '... their disorder" and called for an "endeavour to discover a remedy for it."[45]
    Rush was interested in Native American health. He wanted to find out why Native Americans were susceptible to certain illnesses and whether they had higher mortality rates as compared to other people. Other questions that he raised were whether they dreamed more and if their hair turned gray as they got older. His fascination with these people came from his interest in the theory that social scientists can better study the history of their own civilization by studying cultures in earlier stages of development, "primitive men". In his autobiography, he writes "From a review of the three different species of settlers, it appears that there are certain regular stages which mark the progress from the savage to civilized life. The first settler is nearly related to an Indian in his manners. In the second, the Indian manners are more diluted. It is in the third species only that we behold civilization completed. It is to the third species of settlers only that it is proper to apply the term of farmers. While we record the voices of the first and second settlers, it is but just to mention their virtues likewise. Their mutual wants to produce mutual dependence; hence they are kind and friendly to each other. Their solitary situation makes visitors agreeable to them; hence they are hospitable to a stranger."[46]
    Mental health [ edit ] "The Moral Thermometer." from Benjamin Rush's
    An Inquiry into the Effects of Spirituous Liquors on the Human Body and the Mind. Boston: Thomas and Andrews, 1790 (Library Company of Philadelphia)
    Rush published one of the first descriptions and treatments for psychiatric disorders in American medicine, Medical Inquiries and Observations, Upon the Diseases of the Mind (1812).[47][48] He undertook to classify different forms of mental illness and to theorize as to their causes and possible cures. Rush believed (incorrectly) that many mental illnesses were caused by disruptions of blood circulation or by sensory overload and treated them with devices meant to improve circulation to the brain such as a centrifugal spinning board, and inactivity/sensory deprivation via a restraining chair with a sensory-deprivation head enclosure ("tranquilizer chair").[49] After seeing mental patients in appalling conditions in Pennsylvania Hospital, Rush led a successful campaign in 1792 for the state to build a separate mental ward where the patients could be kept in more humane conditions.[50]
    Rush believed, as did so many physicians of the time, that bleeding and active purging with mercury(I) chloride (calomel) were the preferable medical treatments for insanity, a fact evidenced by his statement that, "It is sometimes difficult to prevail upon patients in this state of madness, or even to compel them, to take mercury in any of the ways in which it is usually administered. In these cases I have succeeded, by sprinkling a few grains of calomel daily upon a piece of bread, and afterwards spreading over it, a thin covering of butter."[51] Rush followed the standard procedures of bleeding and treatment with mercury, he did believe that "coercion" and "restraint", the physical punishment, chains and dungeons, which were the practice of the time, were the answer as proven by his invention of the restraint chair and other devices. For this reason, some aspects of his approach could be seen as similar to Moral Therapy, which would soon rise to prominence in at least the wealthier institutions of Europe and the United States.[52]
    Rush is sometimes considered a pioneer of occupational therapy particularly as it pertains to the institutionalized.[22] In Diseases of the Mind (1812), Rush wrote:
    It has been remarked that the maniacs of the male sex in all hospitals, who assist in cutting wood, making fires, and digging in a garden, and the females who are employed in washing, ironing, and scrubbing floors, often recover, while persons, whose rank exempts them from performing such services, languish away their lives within the walls of the hospital.
    Furthermore, Rush was one of the first people to describe Savant Syndrome. In 1789, he described the abilities of Thomas Fuller, an enslaved African who was a lightning calculator. His observation would later be described in other individuals by notable scientists like John Langdon Down.[53]
    Rush pioneered the therapeutic approach to addiction.[54][55] Prior to his work, drunkenness was viewed as being sinful and a matter of choice. Rush believed that the alcoholic loses control over himself and identified the properties of alcohol, rather than the alcoholic's choice, as the causal agent. He developed the conception of alcoholism as a form of medical disease and proposed that alcoholics should be weaned from their addiction via less potent substances.[56]
    Rush advocated for more humane mental institutions and perpetuated the idea that people with mental illness are people who have an illness, rather than inhuman animals. He is quoted to have said, "Terror acts powerfully upon the body, through the medium of the mind, and should be employed in the cure of madness."[57] He also championed the idea of "partial madness," or that people could have varying degrees of mental illness.[58]
    The American Psychiatric Association's seal bears an image of Rush's purported profile at its center.[59][60][61] The outer ring of the seal contains the words "American Psychiatric Association 1844".[61] The Association's history of the seal states:
    The choice of Rush (1746''1813) for the seal reflects his place in history. .... Rush's practice of psychiatry was based on bleeding, purging, and the use of the tranquilizer chair and gyrator. By 1844 these practices were considered erroneous and abandoned. Rush, however, was the first American to study mental disorder in a systematic manner, and he is considered the father of American Psychiatry.[61]
    Educational legacy [ edit ] During his career, he educated over 3,000 medical students, and several of these established Rush Medical College in Chicago in his honor after his death. His students included Valentine Seaman, who mapped yellow fever mortality patterns in New York and introduced the smallpox vaccine to the United States in 1799.[62] One of his last apprentices was Samuel A. Cartwright, later a Confederate States of America surgeon charged with improving sanitary conditions in the camps around Vicksburg, Mississippi, and Port Hudson, Louisiana. Rush University Medical Center in Chicago, formerly Rush-Presbyterian-St. Luke's Medical Center, was named in his honor.[63]
    Religious views and vision [ edit ] Rush advocated Christianity in public life and in education and sometimes compared himself to the prophet Jeremiah.[64] Rush regularly attended Christ Church in Philadelphia and counted William White among his closest friends (and neighbors). Ever the controversialist, Rush became involved in internal disputes over the revised Book of Common Prayer and the splitting of the Episcopal Church from the Church of England. He dabbled with Presbyterianism, Methodism (which split from Anglicanism in those years), and Unitarianism.[13]:'Š312'Š [22]:'Š11''12,'Š16''17,'Š269''70,'Š322,'Š346'Š In a letter to John Adams, Rush describes his religious views as "a compound of the orthodoxy and heterodoxy of most of our Christian churches."[65] Christian Universalists consider him one of their founders, although Rush stopped attending that church after the death of his friend, former Baptist pastor Elhanan Winchester, in 1797.[66]
    Rush fought for temperance[13]:'Š379''380'Š and both public and Sunday schools. He helped found the Bible Society at Philadelphia (now known as the Pennsylvania Bible Society)[67][68] and promoted the American Sunday School Union.[69] When many public schools stopped using the Bible as a textbook, Rush proposed that the U.S. government require such use, as well as furnish an American Bible to every family at public expense. In 1806, Rush proposed inscribing "The Son of Man Came into the World, Not To Destroy Men's Lives, But To Save Them."[70] above the doors of courthouses and other public buildings. Earlier, on July 16, 1776, Rush had complained to Patrick Henry about a provision in Virginia's constitution of 1776 which forbade clergymen from serving in the legislature.[71]
    Rush felt that the United States was the work of God: "I do not believe that the Constitution was the offspring of inspiration, but I am as perfectly satisfied that the Union of the United States in its form and adoption is as much the work of a Divine Providence as any of the miracles recorded in the Old and New Testament".[72] In 1798, after the Constitution's adoption, Rush declared: "The only foundation for a useful education in a republic is to be laid in Religion. Without this there can be no virtue, and without virtue there can be no liberty, and liberty is the object and life of all republican governments."[69] One quote popularly assigned to Rush, however, which portrays him as a medical libertarian: "Unless we put medical freedoms into the Constitution, the time will come when medicine will organize into an undercover dictatorship [. . .] To restrict the art of healing to one class of men and deny equal privileges to others will constitute the Bastille of medical science. All such laws are un-American and despotic and have no place in a republic [. . .] The Constitution of this republic should make special privilege for medical freedom as well as religious freedom," is likely a misattribution. No primary source for it has been found, and the words "un-American" and "undercover" are anachronisms, as their usage as such did not appear until after Rush's death.[73]
    Before 1779, Rush's religious views were influenced by what he described as "Fletcher's controversy with the Calvinists in favor of the Universality of the atonement." After hearing Elhanan Winchester preach, Rush indicated that this theology "embraced and reconciled my ancient calvinistical, and my newly adopted (Arminian) principles. From that time on I have never doubted upon the subject of the salvation of all men." To simplify, both believed in punishment after death for the wicked. His wife, Julia Rush, thought her husband like Martin Luther for his ardent passions, fearless attacks on old prejudices, and quick tongue against perceived enemies.[14]:'Š297''298'Š
    Rush helped Richard Allen found the African Methodist Episcopal Church. In his autobiography, Allen wrote:
    ...By this time we had waited on Dr. Rush and Mr. Robert Ralston, and told them of our distressing situation. We considered it a blessing that the Lord had put it into our hearts to wait upon... those gentle-men. They pitied our situation, and subscribed largely towards the church, and were very friendly towards us and advised us how to go on.We appointed Mr. Ralston our treasurer. Dr. Rush did much for us in public by his influence. I hope the name of Dr. Benjamin Rush and Mr. Robert Ralston will never be forgotten among us. They were the two first gentlemen who espoused the cause of the oppressed and aided us in building the house of the Lord for the poor Africans to worship in. Here was the beginning and rise of the first African church in America."[74]
    Personal life [ edit ] Julia Stockton Rush, painted by Charles Willson Peale
    On January 11, 1776, Rush married Julia Stockton (1759''1848), daughter of Richard Stockton, another signer of the Declaration of Independence, and his wife Annis Boudinot Stockton. They had 13 children, 9 of whom survived their first year: John, Ann Emily, Richard, Susannah (died as an infant), Elizabeth Graeme (died as an infant), Mary B, James, William (died as an infant), Benjamin (died as an infant), Richard, Julia, Samuel, and William. Richard later became a member of the cabinets of James Madison, James Monroe, John Quincy Adams, Andrew Jackson, James K. Polk, and Zachary Taylor (at one point during each of their presidencies).[75][76]
    In 1812, Rush helped reconcile the friendship of Jefferson and Adams by encouraging the two former presidents to resume writing to each other.[77]
    Statue of Benjamin Rush on "
    Navy Hill" which is, due to security, in a section of Washington, DC inaccessible to tourists and foot traffic
    Death [ edit ] After dying of typhus fever, he was buried (in Section N67) along with his wife Julia in the Christ Church Burial Ground in Philadelphia, not far from where Benjamin Franklin is buried.[78] At the site, a small plaque honoring Benjamin Rush has been placed. However, the box marker is next to the plaque on the right, with inscriptions on the top. The inscription reads,[79]
    In memory ofBenjamin Rush MDhe died on the 19th of Aprilin the year of our Lord 1813Aged 68 yearsWell done good and faithful servantenter thou into the joy of the LordMrs Julia Rushconsort ofBenjamin Rush MDBorn March 2, 1759Died July 7, 1848For as in Adam, all die, even so in ChristShall all be made alive
    Legacy [ edit ] Benjamin Rush Elementary School in Redmond, Washington was named by its students for him.[80] The Arts Academy at Benjamin Rush magnet high school in Philadelphia was established in 2008. Rush County, Indiana, is named for him as is its county seat, Rushville.[81] Rush University Medical Center in Chicago is named after Rush. Benjamin Rush State Park in Philadelphia is named after Rush. The eponymous conservative Benjamin Rush Institute is an associate member of the State Policy Network.[82]
    Controversy regarding quotations [ edit ] George Seldes includes in his widely recognized 1960 book The Great Quotations a quote by Rush:
    "The Constitution of this Republic should make special provision for medical freedom. To restrict the art of healing to one class will constitute the Bastille of medical science."[83]
    The book includes a detailed depiction of sources and methodologies used by Seldes to gather the quotes. However Thomas Szasz in recent years has claimed to believe this is a false attribution, while avoiding to mention Seldes' book: "...Not a single author supplies a verifiable source for it. Hence, I believe this false attribution, depicting Rush as a medical libertarian, needs to be exposed as bogus."[84]
    Writings [ edit ] Rush, Benjamin (1773). "An Address to the Inhabitants of the British Settlements in America, Upon Slave-keeping". Philadelphia: J. Dunlap . Retrieved January 1, 2017 . Rush, Benjamin (1819) [1791]. An inquiry into the effects of ardent spirits upon the human body and mind : with an account of the means of preventing, and of the remedies for curing them. Josiah Richardson. Rush, Benjamin (1794). An account of the bilious remitting yellow fever, as it appeared in the city of Philadelphia, in the year 1793. Philadelphia: Thomas Dobson. Rush, Benjamin (1798). Essays: Literary, Moral, and Philosophical. Philadelphia: Thomas & Samuel F. Bradford. 1989 reprint: Syracuse University Press, ISBN 0-912756-22-5Rush, Benjamin (1799). "Observations Intended to Favour a Supposition That the Black Color (As It Is Called) of the Negroes Is Derived from the Leprosy". Transactions of the American Philosophical Society. 4: 289''297. doi:10.2307/1005108. JSTOR 1005108. Rush, Benjamin, M.D. (1806). A plan of a Peace-Office for the United States. Essays, Literary, Moral and Philosophical. (2nd ed.). Philadelphia: Thomas and William Bradford. pp. 183''88 . Retrieved June 3, 2010 '' via Internet Archive. Rush, Benjamin (1808) [1778]. Directions for preserving the health of soldiers : addressed to the officers of the Army of the United States. Philadelphia: Thomas Dobson. Rush, Benjamin (1812) Medical Inquiries And Observations Upon The Diseases Of The Mind, 2006 reprint: Kessinger Publishing, ISBN 1-4286-2669-7. Free digital copies of original published in 1812 at http://deila.dickinson.edu/theirownwords/title/0034 [permanent dead link ] . or https://web.archive.org/web/20121024024628/http://collections.nlm.nih.gov/muradora/objectView.action?pid=nlm%3Anlmuid-2569036R-bkRush, Benjamin (2003). "Medical Inquiries and Observations, Upon the Diseases of the Mind: Philadelphia: Published by Kimber & Richardson, no. 237, Market Street; Merritt, printer, no. 9, Watkins Alley, 1812". Their Own Words. Carlisle, Pennsylvania: Dickinson College. OCLC 53177922. Archived from the original on January 7, 2004 . Retrieved October 20, 2017 . Rush, Benjamin (1815). "A Defence of Blood-letting, as a Remedy for Certain Diseases". Medical Inquiries and Observations. 4 . Retrieved October 24, 2012 . Rush, Benjamin (1830). Medical Inquiries and Observations upon Diseases of the Mind (4 ed.). Philadelphia: John Grigg. pp. 98, 197. Rush, Benjamin (1835). Medical Inquiries and Observations Upon the Diseases of the Mind (Fifth ed.). Philadelphia: Grigg and Elliott, No. 9 North Fourth Street. OCLC 2812179 . Retrieved October 20, 2017 '' via Internet Archive. Rush, Benjamin (1947). The selected writings of Benjamin Rush. New York: Philosophical Library. p. 448. ISBN 978-0-8065-2955-4. Butterfield, Lyman H., ed. (1951). Letters of Benjamin Rush. Memoirs of the American Philosophical Society. Princeton University Press. OCLC 877738348. The Spur of Fame: Dialogues of John Adams and Benjamin Rush, 1805''1813 (2001), Liberty Fund, ISBN 0-86597-287-7Rush, Benjamin (1970) [1948]. George Washington Corner (ed.). The autobiography of Benjamin Rush; his Travels through life together with his Commonplace book for 1789''1813. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. Fox, Claire G.; Miller, Gordon L.; Miller, Jacquelyn C. (1996). Benjamin Rush, M.D: A Bibliographic Guide. Greenwood Press. ISBN 978-0-313-29823-3. Archival collections [ edit ] The Presbyterian Historical Society in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, has a collection of Benjamin Rush's original manuscripts.
    See also [ edit ] Biography portal List of abolitionist forerunnersMemorial to the 56 Signers of the Declaration of IndependenceNotes [ edit ] ^ a b c d "Benjamin Rush: 1745''1813: Representing Pennsylvania at the Continental Congress". Signers of the Decl of Independence. ushistory.org. Archived from the original on February 7, 2018 . Retrieved February 7, 2018 . ^ Renker, Elizabeth M. (1989). " 'Declaration-Men' and the Rhetoric of Self-Presentation". Early American Literature. 24 (2): 123 and n. 10 there. JSTOR 25056766. ^ Rush, Benjamin (1970) [1948]. George Washington Corner (ed.). The autobiography of Benjamin Rush; his Travels through life together with his Commonplace book for 1789''1813. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. ^ a b "Benjamin Rush (1746''1813)". University of Pennsylvania. Archived from the original on June 10, 2011 . Retrieved August 20, 2011 . ^ Fraser, James (2019). The school in the United States : a documentary history (Fourth ed.). New York, NY: Routledge. p. 25. ISBN 978-1-138-47887-9. ^ Muccigrosso, Robert, ed. (1988). Research Guide to American Historical Biography. Vol. 3. pp. 1139''42. ^ Shorter, Edward (1997). A History of Psychiatry: From the Era of the Asylum to the Age of Prozac. Wiley. ^ Irvine, James (1893). "Descendants of John Rush". The Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography. 17 (3): 334. JSTOR 20083549. ^ "About the Author: Benjamin Rush (1745''1813)". Their Own Words. deila.dickinson.edu. July 9, 2004. Archived from the original on January 26, 2004 . Retrieved October 20, 2017 . ^ The identity of Rush's siblings is confused: there are web pages saying Rush and one brother were responsible for the entire family, and also giving Rush's brothers names as William (a lawyer) and Samuel "Descendants of Thomas Rush". Archived from the original on October 9, 2012 . Retrieved 2012-12-30 . lists Rush's siblings as Jacob, James, John, Rebecca, Rachel, and Stephenson. Most likely, though William and Samuel were relatives and close friends, for Benjamin was a 5th generation removed from the Cromwell era Rush and Benjamin's father's family lived in the Byberry area for generations. ^ "Benjamin Rush". Signers of the Declaration of Independence. Archived from the original on June 29, 2015 . Retrieved December 7, 2014 . ^ Goodrich, Rev. Charles A. (1856). "Benjamin Rush, 1745''1813". Archived from the original on January 8, 2010 . Retrieved December 16, 2017 . ^ a b c d e Hawke, David Freeman (1971). Benjamin Rush: Revolutionary Gadfly . Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill. ^ a b c d e f g h i j Binger, Carl (1966). Revolutionary Doctor / Benjamin Rush (1746''1813). New York: Norton & Co. ^ North RL (2000). "Benjamin Rush, MD: assassin or beloved healer?". Proc Bayl Univ Med Cent. 13 (1): 45''9. doi:10.1080/08998280.2000.11927641. PMC 1312212 . PMID 16389324. ^ Bell, Whitfield J., and Charles Greifenstein, Jr. Patriot-Improvers: Biographical Sketches of Members of the American Philosophical Society. 3 vols. Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1997, I:26, 33, 61''62, 184, 193, 250, 452''64, 453,466, 504, II: 136,257, 369, 386, 393, III:49, 54, 135, 204, 254, 272, 408, 524, 573. ^ a b c "Benjamin Rush to John Adams, July 20, 1811". National Park Service . Retrieved November 22, 2019 . ^ "The Death of General Mercer at the Battle of Princeton, January 3, 1777". Yale University Art Gallery. ^ Gillette, Mary (1981). The Army Medical Department 1775''1818. Army Medical Department Office of Medical History . Retrieved October 24, 2012 . ^ Rush, Benjamin (1808). Directions for preserving the health of soldiers : addressed to the officers of the Army of the United States. Philadelphia: Thomas Dobson. ^ Bayne-Jones, Stanhope (1968). Evolution of Preventative Medicine in the United States Army 1607''1939 (PDF) . Office of the Surgeon General, Department of the Army. Archived from the original on August 1, 2013 . Retrieved October 24, 2012 . ^ a b c d e Brodsky, Alyn (2004). Benjamin Rush: Patriot and Physician. New York: Truman Talley Books/St. Martin's Press. ^ McCullough, David G (2006). 1776: America and Britain at war. London: Penguin. ^ "Book of Members, 1780''2010: Chapter R" (PDF) . American Academy of Arts and Sciences . Retrieved July 28, 2014 . ^ Rabin, Alex (January 25, 2017). "With a Penn graduate in the Oval Office for the first time, here's a look at former President William Henry Harrison's time at the University". The Daily Pennsylvanian . Retrieved April 3, 2019 . ^ "The Prison Society '' About Us". The Pennsylvania Prison Society. Archived from the original on November 5, 2008 . Retrieved November 16, 2008 . ^ "The Philadelphia Society for Alleviating the Miseries of Public Prisons". The Library Company of Philadelphia. World Digital Library . Retrieved January 1, 2014 . ^ McCullough, David (2008) [2001]. John Adams . New York: Simon and Schuster. p. 470. ISBN 9781416575887. ^ Woodger, Elin; Toropov, Brandon (2009). Encyclopedia of the Lewis and Clark Expedition. Infobase Publishing. pp. 304''06. ISBN 9781438110233. ^ Duncan, Dayton; Burns, Ken (1997). Lewis & Clark: The Journey of the Corps of Discovery. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, Inc. pp. 9''10. ISBN 9780679454502. ^ Ambrose, Stephen (1996). Undaunted Courage: Meriwether Lewis, Thomas Jefferson, and the Opening of the American West. New York: Simon & Schuster. pp. 81, 87''91. ISBN 9780684826974. ^ D'Elia, Donald J (1969). "Dr. Benjamin Rush and the Negro". Journal of the History of Ideas. 30 (3): 413''22. doi:10.2307/2708566. JSTOR 2708566. ^ Webb, Stephen H. (March 2002). "Introducing Black Harry Hoosier: The History Behind Indiana's Namesake". Indiana Magazine of History. Trustees of Indiana University. 98 (1): 30''42. Archived from the original on September 5, 2014 . Retrieved February 20, 2017 . ^ Dolbeare, Kenneth M.; Cummings, Michael S. (2010). American political thought (6 ed.). p. 44. ^ "Amendment VIII: Benjamin Rush, On Punishing Murder by Death". press-pubs.uchicago.edu . Retrieved September 4, 2018 . ^ a b "The Founders' Constitution, Volume 5, Amendment VIII, Document 16". The University of Chicago Press. ^ Manion, Jen (2015). Liberty's Prisoners: Carceral Culture in Early America. University of Pennsylvania Press. ^ Savin, Marion B.; Abrahams, Harold J. (1957). "The Young Ladies' Academy of Philadelphia". History of Education Journal. 8 (2): 58''67. ^ Straub, Jean S (1987). "Benjamin Rush's View on Women's Education". Pennsylvania History. 34 (2): 147''57. ^ Rush, Benjamin (1815). "A Defence of Blood-letting, as a Remedy for Certain Diseases". Medical Inquiries and Observations. 4 . Retrieved October 24, 2012 . ^ "Why fair tests are needed". jameslindlibrary.org. 2009. Archived from the original on January 2, 2007 . Retrieved January 8, 2017 . ^ "Introduction: Thomas Jefferson to Meriwether Lewis: "bring back your party safe" ". University of Virginia: Historical Collections at the Claude Moore Health Sciences Library:Medicine and Health on the Lewis and Clark Expedition. Rector and Visitors of the University of Virginia. 2007. Archived from the original on October 20, 2017 . Retrieved October 20, 2017 . ^ "Benjamin Rush and the State of Medicine in 1803". Jefferson National Expansion Memorial. National Park Service: United States Department of the Interior. April 10, 2015. Archived from the original on October 17, 2015 . Retrieved October 20, 2017 . ^ Rush, Benjamin, M.D. (1794). An account of the bilious remitting fever, as it appeared in Philadelphia in the year 1793. Philadelphia, Pa.: Thomas Dobson. ^ Rush, Benjamin (1799). "Observations Intended to Favour a Supposition That the Black Color (As It Is Called) of the Negroes Is Derived from the Leprosy". Transactions of the American Philosophical Society. 4: 289''297. doi:10.2307/1005108. JSTOR 1005108. ^ J. Kunitz; Benjamin Rush (1970). "Benjamin Rush on Savagism and Progress Stephen". Ethnohistory. Duke University Press. 17 (1/2): 31''42. JSTOR 481523. ^ "Rush, Benjamin. Medical Inquiries and Observations, Upon the Diseases of the Mind: Philadelphia: Published by Kimber & Richardson, no. 237, Market Street; Merritt, printer, no. 9, Watkins Alley, 1812". Their Own Words. Carlisle, Pennsylvania: Dickinson College. July 17, 2003. OCLC 53177922. Archived from the original on January 7, 2004 . Retrieved October 20, 2017 . ^ Rush, Benjamin (1835). Medical Inquiries and Observations Upon the Diseases of the Mind (Fifth ed.). Philadelphia: Grigg and Elliott, No. 9 North Fourth Street. OCLC 2812179 . Retrieved October 20, 2017 '' via Internet Archive. ^ Beam, Alex (2001). Gracefully Insane: Life and Death Inside America's Premier Mental Hospital. ^ Deutsch, Albert (2007). The Mentally Ill in America: A History of Their Care and Treatment From Colonial Times. ^ Rush, Benjamin (1830). Medical Inquiries and Observations upon Diseases of the Mind (4 ed.). Philadelphia: John Grigg. pp. 98, 197. ^ Gamwell, Lynn; Tomes, Nancy (1995). Madness in America: Cultural and Medical Perceptions of Mental Illness before 1914. State University of New York at Binghamton. ^ Treffert, Darold A. (2009). "Savant Syndrome: An Extraordinary Condition: A Synopsis: Past, Present, Future". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. The Royal Society Publishing. 364 (1522): 1351''1357. doi:10.1098/rstb.2008.0326. PMC 2677584 . PMID 19528017. ^ Elster, Jon (1999). Strong Feelings: Emotion, Addiction, and Human Behavior. MIT Press. p. 131. ISBN 978-0-262-55036-9. ^ Durrant, Russil; Thakker, Jo (2003). Substance Use & Abuse: Cultural and Historical Perspectives. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. ^ Rush, Benjamin (1805). Inquiry into the Effects of Ardent Spirits upon the Human Body and Mind. Philadelphia: Bartam. ^ "Medical Inquiries and Observations Upon the Diseases of the Mind" Author Benjamin Rush. Published 1835. Page 209. ^ Madden, Etta (2006). "PhD". Early American Literature. 41 (2): 241''272, 396. doi:10.1353/eal.2006.0022. S2CID 161899076. ProQuest 215394022. ^ "American Psychiatric Association Logo". University of California, San Francisco. Archived from the original (JPEG) on October 20, 2017 . Retrieved October 20, 2017 . ^ Moran, Mike (May 28, 2015). "New APA Logo Unifies Image of Psychiatry". Psychiatric News. American Psychiatric Association. 50 (11): 1. doi:10.1176/appi.pn.2015.6a14. The seal features the profile of Benjamin Rush, M.D., who is considered the father of American psychiatry and was a signer of the Declaration of Independence. The seal will continue to be used for ceremonial purposes and some internal documents. ^ a b c Ozarin, Lucy D. (April 17, 1998). Ramchandam, Dilip (ed.). "History Notes: The Official Seal of the APA". Psychiatric News. American Psychiatric Association. Archived from the original on August 29, 2008 . Retrieved October 20, 2017 . ^ Wilson, James Grant (1893). The Memorial History of the City of New-York: From Its First Settlement to the Year 1892. New York History Company. ^ "History". Rush University . Retrieved September 30, 2015 . ^ Hawke, p.5, citing Jeremiah's lament, "Woe is me, my mother, that thou has borne me, a man of strife, and a man of contention to the whole earth. I have neither lent on usury, nor have men lent to me on usury, yet every one of them doth curse me," in Letter to John Adams, December 26, 1811. ^ Letter to John Adams, April 5, 1808 in Butterfield, Letters of Benjamin Rush, pp. 2:962''963 ^ "Benjamin Rush". Unitarian Universalist Association. July 8, 2010. Archived from the original on July 27, 2010 . Retrieved July 8, 2010 . ^ "Dr. Benjamin Rush Diary" . Retrieved July 23, 2013 . ^ "Benjamin Rush, Signer of Declaration of Independence". adherents.com. November 28, 2005. Archived from the original on February 15, 2006. {{cite web}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link) ^ a b America's God and Country Encyclopedia of Quotations, by William Federer, 1999, ISBN 1-880563-09-6, p. 543 ^ (1) Rush, Benjamin (1806). "A plan of a Peace-Office for the United States". Essays, Literary, Moral and Philosophical (2 ed.). Philadelphia: Thomas and William Bradford. pp. 183''88 . Retrieved June 3, 2010 . (2) Runes, Dagobert D., ed. (1947). "A Plan of a Peace-Office for the United States". The Selected Writings of Benjamin Rush. New York: Philosophical Library. pp. 19''24 . Retrieved December 15, 2011 . ^ Rush, Benjamin (July 16, 1776). "To: Patrick Henry". Delegates to Congress: Letters of Delegates to Congress, 1774''1789, Volume 4, May 16, 1776 '' August 15, 1776. Electronic Text Center, University of Virginia Library. Archived from the original on December 15, 2012 . Retrieved October 20, 2017 . ^ To Elias Boudinot on July 9, 1788. Letters of Benjamin Rush L. H. Butterfield, ed., (American Philosophical; Society, 1951), Vol. I, p. 475. ^ Szasz, Thomas (March 1, 2005). "A bogus Benjamin Rush quote: contribution to the history of pharmacracy". History of Psychiatry. 16 (1): 89''98. doi:10.1177/0957154X05044554. ISSN 0957-154X. PMID 15981368. S2CID 20261840. ^ "The Life, Experience, and Gospel Labours of the Rt. Rev. Richard Allen. ^ Hawke (1971), pp. 170''171 ^ Brodsky (2004), p. 385. ^ Brodksy (2004), pp. 422''426. ^ Brodsky (2004), pp. 363''365 ^ Clark, Edward L. (June 2012). A Record of the Inscriptions on the Tablets and Grave-stones in the Burial-grounds of Christ Church. Applewood Books. p. 464. ISBN 9781429093095. ^ "Rush History". Retrieved October 25, 2018. ^ Goodrich, Dewitt Clinton; Tuttle, Charles Richard (1875). An Illustrated History of the State of Indiana. Indiana: R. S. Peale & co. pp. 572. ^ "Benjamin Rush Institute". State Policy Network . Retrieved June 23, 2021 . ^ Seldes, George (1960). The Great Quotations. p. 652. ^ Szasz, Thomas (March 2005). "A Bogus Benjamin Rush Quote: Contribution to the History of Pharmacracy". History of Psychiatry. London, Thousand Oaks, California, and New Delhi: SAGE Publications. 16 (1): 89''98. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.999.4430 . doi:10.1177/0957154X05044554. PMID 15981368. S2CID 20261840. Further reading [ edit ] Goodman, Nathan G. (1934). Benjamin Rush, Physician and Citizen, (1746''1813). Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. Binger, Carl (1966). Revolutionary Doctor: Benjamin Rush (1746''1813). New York: Norton & Co. Hawke, David Freeman (1971). Benjamin Rush: Revolutionary Gadfly. Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill. Levine, Harry G. (1978). "The Discovery of Addiction: Changing Conceptions of Habitual Drunkenness in America" (PDF) . Journal of Studies on Alcohol. 15 (1): 493''506. doi:10.15288/jsa.1978.39.143. PMID 344994. Archived from the original (PDF) on August 10, 2017. Renker, Elizabeth M. (1989). " 'Declaration-Men' and the Rhetoric of Self-Presentation". Early American Literature. 24 (2): 120''134. JSTOR 25056766. McCullough, David (2001). John Adams . Simon & Schuster. ISBN 978-1-4165-7588-7. Brodsky, Alyn (2004). Benjamin Rush: Patriot and Physician. New York: Truman Talley Books/St. Martin's Press. Myrsiades, Linda S. (2012). Law and medicine in revolutionary America : dissecting the Rush v. Cobbett trial, 1799. Bethlehem, PA: Lehigh University Press. Spencer, Mark G. (2013). Encyclopedia of the American Enlightenment. London: Bloomsbury Academic. Fried, Stephen (2018). Rush: Revolution, Madness, & the Visionary Doctor Who Became a Founding Father. New York: Crown. Unger, Harlow Giles. Dr. Benjamin Rush: The Founding Father Who Healed a Wounded Nation (Da Capo Press, 2018). 320 pp. online reviewRush, Benjamin (1800). A report of an action for a libel : brought by Dr. Benjamin Rush, against William Cobbett, in the Supreme Court of Pennsylvania. Philadelphia : Printed by W.W. Woodward. A report of an action for a libel : brought by Dr. Benjamin Rush, against William Cobbett, in the Supreme Court of Pennsylvania, December term, 1799, for certain defamatory publications in a news-paper, entitled Porcupine's gazette, of which the said William Cobbett was editor External links [ edit ] "Benjamin Rush (1746''1813)". University of Pennsylvania. "Rush, Benjamin" . Appletons' Cyclop...dia of American Biography. 1900. Article and portrait at "Discovering Lewis & Clark" Archived December 3, 2007, at the Wayback Machine"Benjamin Rush: The Revolution's Doctor of Medicine and Universal Humanitarian" '' excerpts from his writings"An oration, delivered before the American Philosophical Society, held in Philadelphia on the 27th of February, 1786; containing an enquiry into the influence of physical causes upon the moral faculty."Works by Benjamin Rush at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks) Papers from the Historic Psychiatry Collection, Menninger Archives, Kansas Historical Society"Benjamin Rush: Patriot and Physician". C-SPAN. July 4, 2004 . Retrieved March 25, 2017 . Guide to the Benjamin Rush Lectures circa 1775''1825 at the University of Chicago Special Collections Research CenterGuide to Benjamin Rush, On the Influence of Physical Causes on the Moral Faculty 1786 at the University of Chicago Special Collections Research Center
  Sally Hemings | Hamilton Wiki | Fandom
    Link to Article
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    Wed, 11 Jan 2023 20:03
    Sarah Hemings Sarah "Sally" Hemings was an enslaved woman of mixed race held by President Thomas Jefferson. According to The New York Times, there is a "growing historical consensus" among scholars that, as a widower, Jefferson had a long-term relationship with Hemings, and that he was the father of her six children, born after the death of his wife Martha Jefferson, who was the half-sister of Sally Hemings. Four of Hemings' children survived to adulthood. Hemings died in Charlottesville, Virginia, in 1835.
    Musical Sally Hemings is personified on stage but has no lines in Hamilton. She is seen in the first song in Act II, What'd I Miss? Thomas Jefferson asks her to open the letter on his desk, calling her "darlin'", betraying their close relationship to the audience.
    In The Hamilton Mixtape, Sally Hemmings is referenced again by Alexander Hamilton during Cabinet Battle #3, first indirectly by accusing Thomas Jefferson of being against the government freeing slaves because he would be unable to find another mistress, then calls her out by name, saying that Jefferson wastes times and avoids the issue while he remains in a relationship with an enslaved woman.
    Song References "Sally, be a lamb, darlin'. won'tcha open it"
    '-- Thomas Jefferson. "What'd I Miss" "All your hemming and hawing, while you're hee-hawing with Sally Hemings"
    '-- Alexander Hamilton, "Cabinet Battle #3"
  Rosenwald School - Wikipedia
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    Schools in the United States
    The Rosenwald School project built more than 5,000 schools, shops, and teacher homes in the United States primarily for the education of African-American children in the South during the early 20th century. The project was the product of the partnership of Julius Rosenwald, a Jewish-American clothier who became part-owner and president of Sears, Roebuck and Company and the African-American leader, educator, and philanthropist Booker T. Washington, who was president of the Tuskegee Institute.[1]
    The need arose from the chronic underfunding of public education for African-American children in the South, as black people had been discriminated against at the turn of the century and excluded from the political system in that region. Children were required to attend segregated schools, and even those did not exist in many places.
    Rosenwald was the founder of the Rosenwald Fund. He contributed seed money for many schools and other philanthropic causes. To encourage local commitment to these projects, he conditioned the Fund's support on the local communities' raising of matching funds. To promote collaboration between black and white people, Rosenwald required communities to also commit public funds and/or labor to the schools, as well as to contribute additional cash donations after construction. With the program, millions of dollars were raised by African-American rural communities across the South to fund better education for their children, and white school boards had to agree to operate and maintain the schools. Despite this program, by the mid-1930s, white schools in the South were worth more than five times per student, what black schools were worth per student (in majority-black Mississippi, this ratio was more than 13 to one).[2]
    Rosenwald-Washington collaboration [ edit ] In the segregated schools of the South, African American children were sent to woefully underfunded schools. The collaboration of Rosenwald and Washington led to the construction of almost 5,000 schools for black children in the eleven states of the former Confederacy as well as Oklahoma, Missouri, Kentucky, and Maryland. As a result of their collaboration, approximately one-third of African American children were educated in these schools.[3]
    The Rosenwald-Washington model required the buy-in of African American communities as well as the support of white governing bodies. Black communities raised more than $4.7 million to aid in construction, plus often donating land and labor. Research has found that the Rosenwald program accounts for a sizable portion of the educational gains of rural Southern black persons during this period. This research also found significant effects on school attendance, literacy, years of schooling, cognitive test scores, and Northern migration, with gains highest in the most disadvantaged counties.[4]
    Role of Julius Rosenwald [ edit ] Julius Rosenwald (1862''1932) was born to a Jewish-German immigrant family. He became a clothier by trade after learning the business from relatives in New York City. His first business went bankrupt, but another he began in Chicago, Illinois, became a leading supplier to the growing business of Richard Warren Sears, Sears, Roebuck, and Company, a mail-order business that served many rural Americans. Anticipating demand by using the variations of sizes in American men and their clothing, determined during the American Civil War, Rosenwald helped plan the growth in what many years later marketers would call "the softer side of Sears": clothing. In 1895, he became one of its investors, eventually serving as the president of Sears from 1908 to 1922. He was its chairman until his death in 1932.
    After the 1906 reorganization of the Sears company as a public stock corporation by the financial services firm of Goldman Sachs, one of the senior partners, Paul Sachs, often stayed with the Rosenwald family at their home during his many trips to Chicago. Julius Rosenwald and Sachs often would discuss America's social situation, agreeing that the plight of African Americans was the most serious problem in the United States.[citation needed ] The millions in the South had been disenfranchised at the turn of the century and suffered second-class status in a system of Jim Crow segregation. Black public schools and other facilities were chronically underfunded.[citation needed ]
    Role of Booker T. Washington [ edit ] Sachs introduced Rosenwald to Booker T. Washington (1856''1915), the famed educator who in 1881 started as the first principal of the normal school that he developed as Tuskegee University in Alabama. Washington, who had gained the respect of many American leaders including U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt, also had obtained financial support from wealthy philanthropists such as Andrew Carnegie, George Eastman, and Henry Huttleston Rogers. He encouraged Rosenwald, as he had others, to address the poor state of African-American education in the U.S.
    In 1912, Rosenwald was asked to serve on the board of directors of Tuskegee, a position he held until his death in 1932. Rosenwald endowed Tuskegee so that Washington could spend less time traveling to seek funding and be able to devote more time toward management of the school. As urged by Washington, Rosenwald provided funds for the construction of six small schools in rural Alabama, which were constructed and opened in 1913 and 1914 and overseen by Tuskegee.
    Rosenwald Fund [ edit ] Because many schools were located in areas lacking electricity, the fund designed architectural plans that took advantage of natural light
    Julius Rosenwald and his family established the Rosenwald Fund in 1917 for "the well-being of mankind".[5] Unlike other endowed foundations, which were designed to fund themselves in perpetuity, the Rosenwald Fund was intended to use all of its funds for philanthropic purposes. It donated more than $70 million (equivalent to $789,488,000 in 2021) to public schools, colleges, universities, museums, Jewish charities, and black institutions before the funds were depleted in 1948.[citation needed ]
    The school building program was one of the largest programs administered by the Rosenwald Fund. Using state-of-the-art architectural plans designed by professors at Tuskegee Institute,[6] the fund spent more than $4 million to build 5,388 schools, 217 teacher homes, and 163 shop buildings in 883 counties in 15 states, from Maryland to Texas. The Rosenwald Fund was based on a system of matching grants, requiring white school boards to commit to maintenance and black communities to aid in construction. Fulfilling the goals of the match grant program, African American communities contributed $4.8 million to the building of 5,338 schools throughout the South.[7]
    Preservation [ edit ] Interior of a Rosenwald School
    In some communities, surviving structures have been preserved because of the deep meaning they had for African Americans as symbols of the dedication of their leaders and communities to education. Others were threatened by lack of funds in rural areas, urbanization, changes in demographics, changing styles of education to consolidated and integrated schools, and other social changes.
    Former Rosenwald students have led some efforts to preserve Rosenwald Schools. For example, in Georgia, three former Rosenwald Schools were preserved by the efforts of former students and Georgia's Historic Preservation Division, leading to their being listed on the National Register of Historic Places by 2001.[8]
    In 2001, the National Trust for Historic Preservation named Rosenwald Schools near the top of the country's most endangered places and created a campaign to raise awareness and money for preservation. At least 60 former Rosenwald Schools are listed on the National Register of Historic Places.[9] In 2015, the National Trust classified the Rosenwald Schools as National Treasures.
    A Rosenwald School in East Columbia, Texas, was donated to the Columbia Historical Museum in West Columbia, Texas, in 2002. The City of West Columbia gave permission to move the building onto a city park behind the museum and restoration work began. In 2009, the museum received a $50,000 grant from Lowe's and the National Trust and restoration was completed. The Columbia Rosenwald School opened to the public on Oct. 24, 2009, as the only interpretive center in the nation. More than 80 percent of the building is original, including the teacher's chair, the slate boards and a student desk.
    Historical marker dedication for Barney Colored Elementary School in Brooks County, Georgia
    In Georgia, several Rosenwald School sites have been commemorated through the Georgia Historical Marker Program, currently administered by the Georgia Historical Society. In partnership with community organizations, markers have been erected for the Hiram Rosenwald School (2006, Paulding County), Macon County Training School (2016, Macon County), Barney Colored Elementary School (2013, Brooks County), and Noble Hill Rosenwald School (1995 by the Georgia Department of Natural Resources, Bartow County).
    Some schools have been adapted for new uses. Walnut Cove Colored School in Stokes County, North Carolina, won a National Preservation Honor Award for its rehabilitation for use as a senior citizen community center. The Hope Rosenwald School in Pomaria, South Carolina, also will be used as a community center. The Highland Park School in Prince George's County, Maryland, had been in continuous use by the school system. It was recently renovated for use as a Headstart Center. The Canetuck Rosenwald School in Currie, North Carolina, has been renovated by the local Black community and is used as a busy community center. The Beauregard Parish Training School in DeRidder, Louisiana, was renovated with a federal grant in 2007 and opened in 2009 as BeauCare Head Start.[10]
    In 2012, the National Trust for Historic Preservation, a privately-funded nonprofit organization, published a guide to restoring Rosenwald Schools.[11]
    In 2022 Congress passed a bill directing the National Park Service to study feasilibility of a national historical park preserving and explaining Rosenwald Schools.[12]
    Effects [ edit ] Researchers measured the effects of Rosenwald Schools on rural southern blacks based on US Census and World War II records, and found that the effect on literacy levels and cognitive scores was large.[13] A 2021 study also found that attending the Rosenwald schools increased the life expectancy of the students, as well as increased their propensity to migrate to the Northern United States.[14]
    See also [ edit ] List of Rosenwald SchoolsJane AddamsGrace AbbottEmil HirschJulian MackClaudia StackRosenwald (film)Rosenwald Junior CollegeRagged schools, in BritainReferences [ edit ] ^ Deutsch, Stephanie (2015). You Need a Schoolhouse: Booker T. Washington, Julius Rosenwald, and the Building of Schools for the Segregated South. Evanston, Illinois: Northwestern University Press. ISBN 978-0-8101-3127-9. ^ McMillen, Neil R. (1990). Dark Journey: Black Mississippians in the Age of Jim Crow. University of Illinois Press. p. 84. ISBN 0-252-06156-X. ^ Brooker, Russell; Kaplan, Fran. "The Rosenwald Schools: An Impressive Legacy of Black-Jewish Collaboration for Negro Education". America's Black Holocaust Museum. Archived from the original on June 15, 2013. ^ Federal Reserve Bank of Chicago, "The Impact of Rosenwald Schools on Black Achievement", September 2011 ^ Meier, Allison C. (August 4, 2020). "How Black Communities Built Their Own Schools". JSTOR Daily . Retrieved August 9, 2020 . ^ "History of the Rosenwald School Program". National Trust for Historic Preservation. Archived from the original on December 14, 2013 . Retrieved December 14, 2013 . ^ Anderson, James D. The education of Blacks in the South, 1860-1935. Univ of North Carolina Press, 2010. ^ "Saving Georgia's Rosenwald Schools" (PDF) . Reflections. Historic Preservation Division, Georgia Department of Natural Resources. 1 (4): 3''5. August 2001. Archived from the original on August 9, 2014. {{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link) ^ At least 60 in List of Rosenwald Schools are documented to be NRHP-listed. ^ KPLCTV: Historic DeRidder school starts new chapter- Retrieved 2016-07-27 ^ Williams, Joseph (February 1, 2022). "In Maryland, a segregated school is one of many in the country to be preserved". Washington Post. ^ "Congressional act celebrating Julius Rosenwald's 'tzedakah' would enshrine his memory in a national park". Jewish Telegraphic Agency . Retrieved December 29, 2022 . ^ Daniel Aaronson and Bhashkar Mazumder. The Impact of Rosenwald Schools on Black Achievement. Journal of Political Economy, 119:5 (October 2011), pp. 821-888. doi:10.1086/662962 ^ Aaronson, Daniel; Mazumder, Bhashkar; Sanders, Seth G.; Taylor, Evan J. (May 4, 2020). "Estimating the Effect of School Quality on Mortality in the Presence of Migration: Evidence from the Jim Crow South". Journal of Labor Economics. 39 (2): 527''558. doi:10.1086/709783. ISSN 0734-306X. S2CID 233244980. External links [ edit ] Reporting for Arkansas: New Schools for Arkansas, a 2006 documentary produced by Jack HillRosenwald Schools of South Carolina, An Oral History Exhibit, University of South CarolinaSaving the Rosenwald Schools: Preserving African American HistoryRosenwald Schools Initiative, National Trust for Historic PreservationRosenwald School Archives at Fisk University, searchable database of many Rosenwald Schools, with historic data and photographs from when they were builtHistory South: "Rosenwald Schools"Rosenwald Harlanites, Inc., nonprofit organization to preserve the legacy of the Rosenwald School in Harlan, KentuckyShiloh Community Restoration Project, a nonprofit organization to restore the Shiloh-Rosenwald School, Notasulga, AlabamaNoble Hill Wheeler Memorial Center; restored 1923 Rosenwald School in northwestern GeorgiaPhotographs of some Rosenwald Schools by Sarah Hoskins (the schools in the pictures are not identified)Under the Kudzu, a film by Claudia Stack about two North Carolina Rosenwald SchoolsCarrie Mae: An American Life, a film by Claudia Stack about a teacher who was educated in Rosenwald Schools and then taught in themMultiple-Property Documentation Form, National Register of Historic Places, Virginia Department of Historic Resources; full details about Rosenwald Schools throughout Virginia
  Talented tenth - Wikipedia
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    Essay by W. E. B. Du Bois
    This article is about the African-American leadership class and W. E. B. Du Bois essay. For the hip-hop album, see
    Talented 10th.
    The talented tenth is a term that designated a leadership class of African Americans in the early 20th century. Although the term was created by white Northern philanthropists, it is primarily associated with W. E. B. Du Bois, who used it as title of an influential essay, published in 1903. It appeared in The Negro Problem, a collection of essays written by leading African Americans and assembled by Booker T. Washington.[1]
    Historical context [ edit ] John D. Rockefeller funded the
    ABHMS, which promoted "Talented Tenth" ideology
    The phrase "talented tenth" originated in 1896 among White Northern liberals, specifically the American Baptist Home Mission Society, a Christian missionary society strongly supported by John D. Rockefeller. They had the goal of establishing Black colleges in the South to train Black teachers and elites. In 1903, W.E.B. Du Bois wrote The Talented Tenth; Theodore Roosevelt was president of the United States and industrialization was skyrocketing. Du Bois thought it a good time for African Americans to advance their positions in society.[2]
    The "Talented Tenth" refers to the one in ten Black men that have cultivated the ability to become leaders of the Black community by acquiring a college education, writing books, and becoming directly involved in social change. In The Talented Tenth, Du Bois argues that these college educated African American men should sacrifice their personal interests and use their education to lead and better the Black community.[3]
    He strongly believed that the Black community needed a classical education to reach their full potential, rather than the industrial education promoted by the Atlanta Compromise, endorsed by Booker T. Washington and some White philanthropists. He saw classical education as the pathway to bettering the Black community and as a basis for what, in the 20th century, would be known as public intellectuals:
    Men we shall have only as we make manhood the object of the work of the schools '-- intelligence, broad sympathy, knowledge of the world that was and is, and of the relation of men to it '-- this is the curriculum of that Higher Education which must underlie true life. On this foundation we may build bread winning, the skill of hand and quickness of brain, with never a fear lest the child and man mistake the means of living for the object of life.[4]
    In his later life, Du Bois came to believe that leadership could arise on many levels, and grassroots efforts were also important to social change. His stepson David Du Bois tried to publicize those views, writing in 1972: "Dr. Du Bois' conviction that it's those who suffered most and have the least to lose that we should look to for our steadfast, dependable and uncompromising leadership."[5]
    Du Bois writes in his Talented Tenth essay that
    The Negro race, like all races, is going to be saved by its exceptional men. The problem of education, then, among Negroes must first of all deal with the Talented Tenth; it is the problem of developing the Best of this race that they may guide the Mass away from the contamination and death of the Worst.
    Later in Dusk of Dawn, a collection of his writings, Du Bois redefines this notion, acknowledging contributions by other men. He writes that "my own panacea of an earlier day was a flight of class from mass through the development of the Talented Tenth; but the power of this aristocracy of talent was to lie in its knowledge and character, not in its wealth."
    Du Bois and betterment [ edit ] W.E.B. Du Bois believed that college educated African Americans should set their personal interests aside and use their education to better their communities. Using education to better the African American community meant many things for Du Bois. For one, he believed that the "Talented Tenth" should seek to acquire elite roles in politics. By doing so, Black communities could have representation in government. Representation in government would allow these college educated African Americans to take "racial action."[6]
    That is, Du Bois believed that segregation was a problem that needed to be dealt with, and having African Americans in politics would start the process of dealing with that problem. Moving on, he also believed that an education would allow one to pursue business endeavors that would better the economic welfare of Black communities. According to Du Bois, success in business would not only better the economic welfare of Black communities, it would also encourage White people to see Black people as more equal to them, and thus encourage integration and allow African Americans to enter the mainstream business world.[6]
    Conceptual revision [ edit ] In 1948, W.E.B. Du Bois revised his "Talented Tenth" thesis into the "Guiding Hundredth."[7] This revision was an attempt to democratize the thesis by forming alliances and friendships with other minority groups that also sought to better their conditions in society. Whereas the "Talented Tenth" only pointed out problems African Americans were facing in their communities, the "Guiding Hundredth" would be open to mending the problems other minority groups were encountering as well.[7] Moreover, Du Bois revised this theory to stress the importance of morality. He wanted the people leading these communities to have values synonymous with altruism and selflessness. Thus, when it came to who would be leading these communities, Du Bois placed morality above education.[7]
    The "Guiding Hundredth" challenged the proposition that the salvation of African Americans should be left to a select few. It reimagined the concept of black leadership from "The Talented Tenth" by combining racial, cultural, political, and economic ideologies.[8] Without much success, Du Bois tried to keep the idea of education around. Taking on a new approach of education being a gateway to new opportunities for all people. However, it was viewed as a step in the wrong direction, a threat of reverting to the old ways of thinking, and continued to promote elitism.[8] This revision while also being an attempt at democratization of the original thesis, was also Du Bois' attempt at creating a program for African Americans to follow after the war. A way to strengthen their "ideological conscience."[8]
    Du Bois emphasized forming alliances with other minority groups because it helped promote equality among all blacks.[8] Both "The Talented Tenth" and "The Guiding Hundredth" exhibit the idea that a plan to for political action would need to be evident in order to continue to speak to large populations of black people. Because to Du Bois, black people's ability to express themselves in politics was the epitome of black cultural expression.[8] To gain emancipation was to separate black and White. The cultures could not combine as a way to avoid and protect the spirit of "the universal black."[8]
    Contemporary interpretations [ edit ] The concept of the "Talented Tenth" and the responsibilities assigned to it by Du Bois have been received both positively and negatively by contemporary critics. Positively, some argue that current generations of college-educated African Americans abide by Du Bois' prescriptions by sacrificing their personal interests to lead and better their communities.[7] This, in turn, leads to an "uplift" of those in the Black community. On the other hand, some argue that current generations of college educated African Americans should not abide by Du Bois' prescriptions, and should indeed pursue their own private interest. That is, they believe that college-educated African Americans are not responsible for bettering their communities, whereas Du Bois thinks that they are.[2]
    Advocates of Du Bois' prescriptions explain that key characteristics of the "Talented Tenth" have changed since Du Bois was alive. One author writes, "The potential Talented Tenth of today is a 'me generation,' not the 'we generation' of the past."[2] That is, the Talented Tenth of today focuses more on its own interests as opposed to the general interests of its racial community. Advocates of Du Bois' ideals believe that African Americans have lost sight of the importance of uplifting their communities. Rather, they have pursued their own interests and now dwell in the fruits of their "financial gain and strivings."[2] Although the percentage of college-educated African Americans has gone up, it is still far less than the percentage of college-educated White Americans.[2] Therefore, these advocates believe that modern-day members of the "Talented Tenth" should still bear responsibility to use their education to help the African American community, which continues to suffer the effects of racial discrimination.
    In contrast, those not in favor of Du Bois' prescriptions believe that African Americans have the right to pursue their own interests. Feminist critics specifically, and critics of Du Bois in general, tend to believe that marginalized groups are often "put in boxes" and are expected to either remain within those constructs or abide by their stereotypes. These critics believe that what an African American decides to do with their college education should not become a stereotype either. Furthermore, many of Du Bois' original texts, including The Talented Tenth, receive feminist criticism for exclusively using the word "man", as if only African American men could seek out a college education. According to these feminists, this acts to perpetuate the persistence of a culture that only encourages or allows men to pursue higher education.[2]
    Attainability [ edit ] To be a part of this "Talented Tenth," an African American must be college educated. This is a qualification that many view as unattainable for many members of the African American community because the percentage of African Americans in college is much lower than the percentage of White people in college. There are multiple explanations for this fact.
    Some argue that this disparity is the result of government policies. For instance, financial aid for college students in low income families decreased in the 1980s because problems regarding monetary inequality began to be perceived as problems of the past.[9] A lack of financial aid can deter or disable one from pursuing higher education. Thus, since Black and African American families make up about 2.9 million of the low income families in the U.S., members of the Black community surely encounter this problem.[10]
    Moreover, because African Americans make up such a large number of the low income families in the U.S., many African Americans face the problem of their children being placed in poorly funded public schools. Because poor funding often leads to poor education, getting into college will be more difficult for students. Along with a poor education, these schools often lack resources that can prepare students for college. For instance, schools with poor funding do not have college guidance counselors: a resource that many private and well funded public schools have.[11]
    Therefore, some argue that Du Bois' prescription or plan for this "Talented Tenth" is unattainable.
    See also [ edit ] African-American upper class '' Contemporary successors of the Talented Tenth.Negro Academy '' Scholarly institute that published many works of the Talented Tenth.References [ edit ] ^ Du Bois, W. E. B. (1903). "The Talented Tenth". In Washington, Booker T. (ed.). The Negro Problem: a series of articles by representative American Negroes of today. New York: James Pott and Company. pp. 31''75. ^ a b c d e f King, L'Monique (2013). "The Relevance and Redefining of Du Bois's Talented Tenth: Two Centuries Later". Papers & Publications: Interdisciplinary Journal of Undergraduate Research. 2: 7 '' via JSTOR. ^ Battle, Juan; Wright, Earl (2002). "W.E.B. Du Bois's Talented Tenth: A Quantitative Assessment". Journal of Black Studies. 32 (6): 654''672. doi:10.1177/00234702032006002. ISSN 0021-9347. JSTOR 3180968. S2CID 143962872. ^ W.E.B. Du Bois, "The Talented Tenth" (text), Sep 1903, TeachingAmericanHistory.org, Ashland University, accessed 3 Sep 2008 ^ Joy James, Transcending the Talented Tenth: Black Leaders and American Intellectuals, New York: Routledge, 1997 ^ a b Gooding-Williams, Robert (2020), "W.E.B. Du Bois", in Zalta, Edward N. (ed.), The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Spring 2020 ed.), Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University , retrieved 2020-11-24 ^ a b c d Rabaka, Reiland (2003). "W. E. B. Du Bois's Evolving Africana Philosophy of Education". Journal of Black Studies. 33 (4): 399''449. doi:10.1177/0021934702250021. ISSN 0021-9347. JSTOR 3180873. S2CID 144101148. ^ a b c d e f Jucan, Marius (2012-12-01). " "The Tenth Talented" v. "The Hundredth Talented": W. E .B. Du Bois's Two Versions on the Leadership of the African American Community in the 20th Century". American, British and Canadian Studies. 19 (2012): 27''44. doi:10.2478/abcsj-2013-0002 . ^ Carnoy, Martin (1994). "Why Aren't more African Americans Going to College?". The Journal of Blacks in Higher Education (6): 66''69. doi:10.2307/2962468. ISSN 1077-3711. JSTOR 2962468. ^ Du Bois, W.E.B. (1903). The Talented Tenth. Project Gutenberg. ^ Brownstein, Janie Boschma, Ronald (2016-02-29). "Students of Color Are Much More Likely to Attend Schools Where Most of Their Peers Are Poor". The Atlantic . Retrieved 2020-11-24 . Further reading [ edit ] The Negro Problem, New York: James Pott and Company, 1903W. E. B. Du Bois, Dusk of Dawn, "Writings," (Library of America, 1986), p 842External links [ edit ]
  We Shall Overcome - Wikipedia
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    Protest song of the civil rights movement
    Joan Baez performs "We Shall Overcome" at the White House in front of President
    Barack Obama, at a celebration of music from the period of the civil rights movement.
    "We Shall Overcome" is a gospel song which became a protest song and a key anthem of the American civil rights movement. The song is most commonly attributed as being lyrically descended from "I'll Overcome Some Day", a hymn by Charles Albert Tindley that was first published in 1901.[1][2]
    The modern version of the song was first said to have been sung by tobacco workers led by Lucille Simmons during the 1945''1946 Charleston Cigar Factory strike in Charleston, South Carolina. In 1947, the song was published under the title "We Will Overcome" in an edition of the People's Songs Bulletin (a publication of People's Songs, an organization of which Pete Seeger was the director), as a contribution of and with an introduction by Zilphia Horton, then-music director of the Highlander Folk School of Monteagle, Tennessee (an adult education school that trained union organizers). Horton said she had learned the song from Simmons, and she considered it to be her favorite song. According to Horton, "one of the stanzas of the original hymn was 'we will overcome'. ... It sort of stops them cold silent.'" [3]
    She taught it to many others, including Pete Seeger,[4] who included it in his repertoire, as did many other activist singers, such as Frank Hamilton and Joe Glazer, who recorded it in 1950.
    The song became associated with the civil rights movement from 1959, when Guy Carawan stepped in with his and Seeger's version as song leader at Highlander, which was then focused on nonviolent civil rights activism. It quickly became the movement's unofficial anthem. Seeger and other famous folksingers in the early 1960s, such as Joan Baez, sang the song at rallies, folk festivals, and concerts in the North and helped make it widely known. Since its rise to prominence, the song, and songs based on it, have been used in a variety of protests worldwide.
    The U.S. copyright of the People's Songs Bulletin issue which contained "We Will Overcome" expired in 1976, but The Richmond Organization asserted a copyright on the "We Shall Overcome" lyrics, registered in 1960. In 2017, in response to a lawsuit against TRO over allegations of false copyright claims, a U.S. judge issued an opinion that the registered work was insufficiently different from the "We Will Overcome" lyrics that had fallen into the public domain because of non-renewal. In January 2018, the company agreed to a settlement under which it would no longer assert any copyright claims over the song.
    Origins as gospel, folk, and labor song [ edit ] "I'll Overcome Some Day" was a hymn or gospel music composition by the Reverend Charles Albert Tindley of Philadelphia that was first published in 1901.[5] A noted minister of the Methodist Episcopal Church, Tindley was the author of approximately 50 gospel hymns, of which "We'll Understand It By and By" and "Stand By Me" are among the best known. The published text bore the epigraph, "Ye shall overcome if ye faint not", derived from Galatians 6:9: "And let us not be weary in doing good, for in due season we shall reap, if we faint not." The first stanza began:
    The world is one great battlefield,With forces all arrayed;If in my heart I do not yield,I'll overcome some day.
    Tindley's songs were written in an idiom rooted in African American folk traditions, using pentatonic intervals, with ample space allowed for improvised interpolation, the addition of "blue" thirds and sevenths, and frequently featuring short refrains in which the congregation could join.[6] Tindley's importance, however, was primarily as a lyricist and poet whose words spoke directly to the feelings of his audiences, many of whom had been freed from slavery only 36 years before he first published his songs, and were often impoverished, illiterate, and newly arrived in the North.[7] "Even today," wrote musicologist Horace Boyer in 1983, "ministers quote his texts in the midst of their sermons as if they were poems, as indeed they are."[8]
    A letter printed on the front page of February 1909, United Mine Workers Journal states: "Last year at a strike, we opened every meeting with a prayer, and singing that good old song, 'We Will Overcome'." This statement implied that the song was well-known, and it was also the first acknowledgment of such a song having been sung in both a secular context and a mixed-race setting.[9][10][11]
    Tindley's "I'll Overcome Some Day" was believed to have influenced the structure for "We Shall Overcome",[9] with both the text and the melody having undergone a process of alteration. The tune has been changed so that it now echoes the opening and closing melody of "No More Auction Block For Me",[12] also known from its refrain as "Many Thousands Gone".[13] This was number 35 in Thomas Wentworth Higginson's collection of Negro Spirituals that appeared in the Atlantic Monthly of June 1867, with a comment by Higginson reflecting on how such songs were composed (i.e., whether the work of a single author or through what used to be called "communal composition"):
    Even of this last composition, however, we have only the approximate date and know nothing of the mode of composition. Allan Ramsay says of the Scots Songs, that, no matter who made them, they were soon attributed to the minister of the parish whence they sprang. And I always wondered, about these, whether they had always a conscious and definite origin in some leading mind, or whether they grew by gradual accretion, in an almost unconscious way. On this point, I could get no information, though I asked many questions, until at last, one day when I was being rowed across from Beaufort to Ladies' Island, I found myself, with delight, on the actual trail of a song. One of the oarsmen, a brisk young fellow, not a soldier, on being asked for his theory of the matter, dropped out a coy confession. "Some good spirituals," he said, "are start jess out o' curiosity. I been a-raise a sing, myself, once."
    My dream was fulfilled, and I had traced out, not the poem alone, but the poet. I implored him to proceed.
    "Once we boys," he said, "went for to tote some rice, and de nigger-driver, he keep a-calling on us; and I say, 'O, de ole nigger-driver!' Den another said, 'First thing my mammy told me was, notin' so bad as a nigger-driver.' Den I made a sing, just puttin' a word, and den another word."
    Then he began singing, and the men, after listening a moment, joined in the chorus as if it were an old acquaintance, though they evidently had never heard it before. I saw how easily a new "sing" took root among them.[14]
    Coincidentally, Bob Dylan claims that he used the very same melodic motif from "No More Auction Block" for his composition, "Blowin' in the Wind".[15] Thus similarities of melodic and rhythmic patterns imparted cultural and emotional resonance ("the same feeling") towards three different, and historically very significant songs.
    Music scholars have also pointed out that the first half of "We Shall Overcome" bears a notable resemblance to the famous lay Catholic hymn "O Sanctissima", also known as "The Sicilian Mariners Hymn", first published by a London magazine in 1792 and then by an American magazine in 1794 and widely circulated in American hymnals.[16][17][18][19][20] The second half of "We Shall Overcome" is essentially the same music as the 19th-century hymn "I'll Be All Right".[21] As Victor Bobetsky summarized in his 2015 book on the subject: "'We Shall Overcome' owes its existence to many ancestors and to the constant change and adaptation that is typical of the folk music process."[16]
    Role of the Highlander Folk School [ edit ] In October 1945 in Charleston, South Carolina, members of the Food, Tobacco, Agricultural, and Allied Workers union (FTA-CIO), who were mostly female and African American, began a five-month strike against the American Tobacco Company. To keep up their spirits during the cold, wet winter of 1945''1946, one of the strikers, a woman named Lucille Simmons, led a slow "long meter style" version of the gospel hymn, "We'll Overcome (I'll Be All Right)" to end each day's picketing. Union organizer Zilphia Horton, who was the wife of the co-founder of the Highlander Folk School (later Highlander Research and Education Center), said she learned it from Simmons. Horton was Highlander's music director during 1935''1956, and it became her custom to end group meetings each evening by leading this, her favorite song. During the presidential campaign of Henry A. Wallace, "We Will Overcome" was printed in Bulletin No. 3 (September 1948), 8, of People's Songs, with an introduction by Horton saying that she had learned it from the interracial FTA-CIO workers and had found it to be extremely powerful. Pete Seeger, a founding member of People's Songs and its director for three years, learned it from Horton's version in 1947.[22] Seeger writes: "I changed it to 'We shall'... I think I liked a more open sound; 'We will' has alliteration to it, but 'We shall' opens the mouth wider; the 'i' in 'will' is not an easy vowel to sing well ...."[4] Seeger also added some verses ("We'll walk hand in hand" and "The whole wide world around").
    In 1950, the CIO's Department of Education and Research released the album, Eight New Songs for Labor, sung by Joe Glazer ("Labor's Troubador"), and the Elm City Four. (Songs on the album were: "I Ain't No Stranger Now", "Too Old to Work", "That's All", "Humblin' Back", "Shine on Me", "Great Day", "The Mill Was Made of Marble", and "We Will Overcome".) During a Southern CIO drive, Glazer taught the song to country singer Texas Bill Strength, who cut a version that was later picked up by 4-Star Records.[23]
    The song made its first recorded appearance as "We Shall Overcome" (rather than "We Will Overcome") in 1952 on a disc recorded by Laura Duncan (soloist) and The Jewish Young Singers (chorus), conducted by Robert De Cormier, co-produced by Ernie Lieberman and Irwin Silber on Hootenany Records (Hoot 104-A) (Folkways, FN 2513, BCD15720), where it is identified as a Negro Spiritual.
    Frank Hamilton, a folk singer from California who was a member of People's Songs and later The Weavers, picked up Seeger's version. Hamilton's friend and traveling companion, fellow-Californian Guy Carawan, learned the song from Hamilton. Carawan and Hamilton, accompanied by Ramblin Jack Elliot, visited Highlander in the early 1950s where they also would have heard Zilphia Horton sing the song. In 1957, Seeger sang for a Highlander audience that included Dr. Martin Luther King Jr., who remarked on the way to his next stop, in Kentucky, about how much the song had stuck with him. When, in 1959, Guy Carawan succeeded Horton as music director at Highlander, he reintroduced it at the school. It was the young (many of them teenagers) student-activists at Highlander, however, who gave the song the words and rhythms for which it is currently known, when they sang it to keep their spirits up during the frightening police raids on Highlander and their subsequent stays in jail in 1959''1960. Because of this, Carawan has been reluctant to claim credit for the song's widespread popularity. In the PBS video We Shall Overcome, Julian Bond credits Carawan with teaching and singing the song at the founding meeting of the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee in Raleigh, North Carolina, in 1960. From there, it spread orally and became an anthem of Southern African American labor union and civil rights activism.[24] Seeger has also publicly, in concert, credited Carawan with the primary role of teaching and popularizing the song within the civil rights movement.
    Use in the 1960s civil rights and other protest movements [ edit ] In August 1963, 22-year old folksinger Joan Baez, led a crowd of 300,000 in singing "We Shall Overcome" at the Lincoln Memorial during A. Philip Randolph's March on Washington. President Lyndon Johnson, himself a Southerner, used the phrase "we shall overcome" in addressing Congress on March 15, 1965,[25] in a speech delivered after the violent "Bloody Sunday" attacks on civil rights demonstrators during the Selma to Montgomery marches, thus legitimizing the protest movement.
    Four days before the April 4, 1968 assassination of Martin Luther King Jr., King recited the words from "We Shall Overcome" in his final sermon, delivered in Memphis on Sunday, March 31.[26] He had done so in a similar sermon delivered in 1965 before an interfaith congregation at Temple Israel in Hollywood, California:[27]
    We shall overcome. We shall overcome. Deep in my heart I do believe we shall overcome. And I believe it because somehow the arc of the moral universe is long, but it bends towards justice. We shall overcome because Carlyle is right; "no lie can live forever". We shall overcome because William Cullen Bryant is right; "truth crushed to earth will rise again". We shall overcome because James Russell Lowell is right:
    Truth forever on the scaffold, Wrong forever on the throne. Yet that scaffold sways the future, And behind the then unknown Standeth God within the shadow, Keeping watch above his own.
    With this faith, we will be able to hew out of the mountain of despair a stone of hope. With this faith, we will be able to transform the jangling discords of our nation into a beautiful symphony of brotherhood. With this faith, we will be able to speed up the day. And in the words of prophecy, every valley shall be exalted. And every mountain and hill shall be made low. The rough places will be made plain and the crooked places straight. And the glory of the Lord shall be revealed and all flesh shall see it together. This will be a great day. This will be a marvelous hour. And at that moment'--figuratively speaking in biblical words'--the morning stars will sing together and the sons of God will shout for joy[28]
    "We Shall Overcome" was sung days later by over fifty thousand attendees at the funeral of Martin Luther King Jr.[29]
    Farmworkers in the United States later sang the song in Spanish during the strikes and grape boycotts of the late 1960s.[30] The song was notably sung by the U.S. Senator for New York Robert F. Kennedy, when he led anti-Apartheid crowds in choruses from the rooftop of his car while touring South Africa in 1966.[31] It was also the song which Abie Nathan chose to broadcast as the anthem of the Voice of Peace radio station on October 1, 1993, and as a result it found its way back to South Africa in the later years of the Anti-Apartheid Movement.[32]
    The Northern Ireland Civil Rights Association adopted "we shall overcome" as a slogan and used it in the title of its retrospective publication, We Shall Overcome '' The History of the Struggle for Civil Rights in Northern Ireland 1968''1978.[33][34] The film Bloody Sunday depicts march leader and Member of Parliament (MP) Ivan Cooper leading the song shortly before 1972's Bloody Sunday shootings. In 1997, the Christian men's ministry, Promise Keepers featured the song on its worship CD for that year: The Making of a Godly Man, featuring worship leader Donn Thomas and the Maranatha! Promise Band. Bruce Springsteen's re-interpretation of the song was included on the 1998 tribute album Where Have All the Flowers Gone: The Songs of Pete Seeger as well as on Springsteen's 2006 album We Shall Overcome: The Seeger Sessions.
    Widespread adaptation [ edit ] "We Shall Overcome" was adopted by various labor, nationalist, and political movements both during and after the Cold War. In his memoir about his years teaching English in Czechoslovakia after the Velvet Revolution, Mark Allen wrote:
    In Prague in 1989, during the intense weeks of the Velvet Revolution, hundreds of thousands of people sang this haunting music in unison in Wenceslas Square, both in English and in Czech, with special emphasis on the phrase 'I do believe.' This song's message of hope gave protesters strength to carry on until the powers-that-be themselves finally gave up hope themselves.In the Prague of 1964, Seeger was stunned to find himself being whistled and booed by crowds of Czechs when he spoke out against the Vietnam War. But those same crowds had loved and adopted his rendition of 'We Shall Overcome.' History is full of such ironies '' if only you are willing to see them.
    '--'‰
    'Prague Symphony', Praha Publishing, 2008[35]The words "We shall overcome" are sung emphatically at the end of each verse in a song of Northern Ireland's civil rights movement, Free the People, which protested against the internment policy of the British Army. The movement in Northern Ireland was keen to emulate the movement in the US and often sang "We shall overcome".[36]
    The melody was also used (crediting it to Tindley) in a symphony by American composer William Rowland.[citation needed ] In 1999, National Public Radio included "We Shall Overcome" on the "NPR 100" list of most important American songs of the 20th century.[37] As a reference to the line, on January 20, 2009, after the inauguration of Barack Obama as the 44th President of the United States, a man holding the banner, "WE HAVE OVERCOME" was seen near the Capitol, a day after hundreds of people posed with the sign on Martin Luther King Jr. Day.[38]
    As the attempted serial killer "Lasermannen" shot several immigrants around Stockholm in 1992, Prime Minister Carl Bildt and Immigration Minister Birgit Friggebo attended a meeting in Rinkeby. As the audience became upset, Friggebo tried to calm them down by proposing that everyone sing "We Shall Overcome". This statement is widely regarded as one of the most embarrassing moments in Swedish politics. In 2008, the newspaper Svenska Dagbladet listed the Sveriges Television recording of the event as the best political clip available on YouTube.[39]
    On June 7, 2010, Roger Waters of Pink Floyd fame released a new version of the song as a protest against the Israeli blockade of Gaza.[40]
    On July 22, 2012, Bruce Springsteen performed the song during the memorial-concert in Oslo after the terrorist attacks in Norway on July 22, 2011.
    In India, the renowned poet Girija Kumar Mathur composed its literal translation in Hindi "Hum Honge Kaamyab (à¤¹à¤® à¤¹à¥‹à¤‚à¤—à¥‡ à¤•à¤¾à¤®à¤¯à¤¾à¤¬)" which became a popular patriotic/spiritual song during the 1970s and 80s, particularly in schools.[41] This song also came to be used by the Blue Pilgrims for motivating the India national football team during international matches.
    In Bengali-speaking India and Bangladesh, there are two versions, both of which are popular among school-children and political activists. "Amra Korbo Joy" (à...†à...®à...°à...¾ à...•à...°à...¬à§‹ à...'à...¯à...¼, a literal translation) was translated by the Bengali folk singer Hemanga Biswas and re-recorded by Bhupen Hazarika. Hazarika, who had heard the song during his days in the US, also translated the song to the Assamese language as "Ami hom xophol" (à...†à...®à... à...¹'à...® à...¸à...à...²).[42] Another version, translated by Shibdas Bandyopadhyay, "Ek Din Shurjer Bhor" (à...à...• à......à...à...¨ à...¸à§‚à...°à§à...¯à§‡à...° à...­à§‹à...°, literally translated as "One Day The Sun Will Rise") was recorded by the Calcutta Youth Choir and arranged by Ruma Guha Thakurta during the 1971 Bangladesh War of Independence and it became one of the largest selling Bengali records. It was a favorite of Bangladeshi Prime Minister Sheikh Mujibur Rahman and it was regularly sung at public events after Bangladesh gained its independence in the early 1970s.[citation needed ]
    In the Indian State of Kerala, the traditional Communist stronghold, the song became popular on college campuses during the late 1970s. It was the struggle song of the Students Federation of India SFI, the largest student organisation in the country. The song translated to the regional language Malayalam by N. P. Chandrasekharan, an activist for SFI. The translation followed the same tune of the original song, as "Nammal Vijayikkum". Later it was also published in Student, the monthly of SFI in Malayalam as well as in Sarvadesheeya Ganangal (Mythri Books, Thiruvananthapuram), a translation of international struggle songs.
    "We Shall Overcome" was a prominent song in the 2010 Bollywood film My Name is Khan, which compared the struggle of Muslims in modern America with the struggles of African Americans in the past. The song was sung in both English and Hindi in the film, which starred Kajol and Shahrukh Khan.
    In 2014, a recording of We Shall Overcome arranged by composer Nolan Williams Jr. and featuring mezzo-soprano Denyce Graves was among several works of art, including the poem A Brave and Startling Truth by Maya Angelou, were sent to space on the first test flight of the spacecraft Orion.[43]
    The Argentine writer and singer Mar­a Elena Walsh wrote a Spanish version called "Venceremos".[44]
    Copyright status [ edit ] The copyright status of "We Shall Overcome" was disputed in the late 2010s. A copyright registration was made for the song in 1960, which is credited as an arrangement by Zilphia Horton, Guy Carawan, Frank Hamilton, and Pete Seeger, of a work entitled "I'll Overcome", with no known original author.[9] Horton's heirs, Carawan, Hamilton, and Seeger share the artists' half of the rights, and The Richmond Organization (TRO), which includes Ludlow Music, Essex, Folkways Music, and Hollis Music, holds the publishers' rights, to 50% of the royalty earnings. Seeger explained that he registered the copyright under the advice of TRO, who showed concern that someone else could register it. "At that time we didn't know Lucille Simmons' name", Seeger said.[45] Their royalties go to the "We Shall Overcome" Fund, administered by Highlander under the trusteeship of the "writers". Such funds are purportedly used to give small grants for cultural expression involving African Americans organizing in the U.S. South.[46]
    In April 2016, the We Shall Overcome Foundation (WSOF), led by music producer Isaias Gamboa, sued TRO and Ludlow, seeking to have the copyright status of the song clarified and the return of all royalties collected by the companies from its usage. The WSOF, which was working on a documentary about the song and its history, were denied permission to use the song by TRO-Ludlow. The filing argued that TRO-Ludlow's copyright claims were invalid because the registered copyright had not been renewed as required by United States copyright law at the time; because of this, the copyright of the 1948 People's Songs publication containing "We Will Overcome" had expired in 1976. Additionally, it was argued that the registered copyrights only covered specific arrangements of the tune and "obscure alternate verses", that the registered works "did not contain original works of authorship, except to the extent of the arrangements themselves", and that no record of a work entitled "I'll Overcome" existed in the database of the United States Copyright Office.[9]
    The suit acknowledged that Seeger himself had not claimed to be an author of the song, stating of the song in his autobiography, "No one is certain who changed 'will' to 'shall.' It could have been me with my Harvard education. But Septima Clarke, a Charleston schoolteacher (who was director of education at Highlander and after the civil rights movement was elected year after year to the Charleston, S.C. Board of Education) always preferred 'shall.' It sings better." He also reaffirmed that the decision to copyright the song was a defensive measure, with his publisher apparently warning him that "if you don't copyright this now, some Hollywood types will have a version out next year like 'Come on Baby, We shall overcome tonight ' ". Furthermore, the liner notes of Seeger's compilation album If I Had a Hammer: Songs of Hope & Struggle contained a summary on the purported history of the song, stating that "We Shall Overcome" was "probably adapted from the 19th-century hymn, 'I'll Be All Right ' ", and that "I'll Overcome Some Day" was a "possible source" and may have originally been adapted from "I'll Be All Right".[47]
    Gamboa has historically shown interest in investigating the origins of "We Shall Overcome";[9] in a book entitled We Shall Overcome: Sacred Song On The Devil's Tongue, he notably disputed the song's claimed origins and copyright registration with an alternate theory, suggesting that "We Shall Overcome" was actually derived from "If My Jesus Wills", a hymn by Louise Shropshire that had been composed in the 1930s and had its copyright registered in 1954.[48][49] The WSOF lawsuit did not invoke this alternate history, focusing instead on the original belief that the song stemmed from "We Will Overcome".[9][47] The lawyer backing Gamboa's suit, Mark C. Rifkin, was previously involved in a case that invalidated copyright claims over the song "Happy Birthday to You".[50]
    On September 8, 2017, Judge Denise Cote of the Southern District of New York issued an opinion that there were insufficient differences between the first verse of the "We Shall Overcome" lyrics registered by TRO-Ludlow, and the "We Will Overcome" lyrics from People's Songs (specifically, the aforementioned replacement of "will" with "shall", and changing "down in my heart" to "deep in my heart") for it to qualify as a distinct derivative work eligible for its own copyright.[51][52]
    On January 26, 2018, TRO-Ludlow agreed to a final settlement, under which it would no longer claim copyright over the melody or lyrics to "We Shall Overcome".[53] In addition, TRO-Ludlow agreed that the melody and lyrics were thereafter dedicated to the public domain.[54][55][56]
    See also [ edit ] Civil rights movement in popular cultureTimeline of the civil rights movementChristian child's prayer § SpiritualsNotes [ edit ] ^ Bobetsky, Victor (2014). "The complex ancestry of "We Shall Overcome" ". Choral Journal. 57: 26''36. ^ Lynskey, Dorian (2011). 33 revolutions per minute. London, UK: Faber & Faber. pp. 33. ISBN 978-0061670152. ^ "We Will Overcome," by FTA-CIO Workers, Highlander Students; People's Songs, Sept. 1948 ^ a b Seeger, Pete (1997). Where Have All The Flowers Gone '' A Musical Autobiography. Bethlehem, PA: Sing Out. ISBN 1881322106. ^ Tindley, C. Albert (1900). "I'll Overcome Some Day". New Songs of the Gospel. Philadelphia: Hall-Mack Co. ^ Horace Clarence Boyer, "Charles Albert Tindley: Progenitor of Black-American Gospel Music", The Black Perspective in Music 11: No. 2 (Autumn, 1983), pp. 103''132. ^ Boyer, [1983], p. 113. "Tindley was a composer for whom the lyrics constituted its major element; while the melody and were handled with care, these elements were regarded as subservient to the text." ^ Boyer (1983), p. 113. ^ a b c d e f Graham, David A. (14 April 2016). "Who Owns 'We Shall Overcome'?". The Atlantic . Retrieved 13 July 2016 . ^ "Lawyers who won Happy Birthday copyright case sue over "We Shall Overcome" ". Ars Technica. 13 April 2016 . Retrieved 13 July 2016 . ^ The United Mine Workers was racially integrated from its founding and was notable for having a large black presence, particularly in Alabama and West Virginia. The Alabama branch, whose membership was three-quarters black, in particular, met with fierce, racially-based resistance during a strike in 1908 and was crushed. See Daniel Letwin, "Interracial Unionism, Gender, and Social Equality in the Alabama Coalfields, 1878''1908", The Journal of Southern History LXI: 3 (August 1955): 519''554. ^ James Fuld tentatively attributes the change to the version by Atron Twigg and Kenneth Morris. See James J. Fuld, The Book of World-Famous Music: Classical, Popular, and Folk (noted by Wallace and Wallechinsky)1966; New York: Dover, 1995). According to Alan Lomax's The Folk Songs of North America, "No More Auction Block For Me" originated in Canada and it was sung by former slaves who fled there after Britain abolished slavery in 1833. ^ Eileen Southern, The Music of Black Americans: A History, Second Edition (Norton, 1971): 546''47, 159''60. ^ Higginson, Thomas Wentworth (June 1867). "Negro Spirituals". The Atlantic Monthly. 19 (116): 685''694. ^ From the sleeve notes to Bob Dylan's "Bootleg Series Volumes 1''3" '' "...it was Pete Seeger who first identified Dylan's adaptation of the melody of this song ["No More Auction Block"] for the composition of "Blowin' in the Wind". Indeed, Dylan himself was to admit the debt in 1978, when he told journalist Marc Rowland: "Blowin' in the Wind" has always been spiritual. I took it off a song called "No More Auction Block" '' that's a spiritual, and "Blowin' in the Wind sorta follows the same feeling..." ^ a b Bobetsky, Victor V. (2015). We Shall Overcome: Essays on a Great American Song. pp. 1''13. ISBN 9781442236035 . Retrieved October 18, 2016 . ^ Seward, William (November 1792). "Drossiana. Number XXXVIII. The Sicilian Mariner's Hymn to the Virgin". European Magazine. 22 (5): 342, 385''386 . Retrieved October 26, 2016 . ^ Shaw, Robert, ed. (May 1794). "Prayer of the Sicilian Mariners". The Gentleman's Amusement: 25 . Retrieved October 26, 2016 . ^ Brink, Emily; Polman, Bert, eds. (1988). The Psalter Hymnal Handbook . Retrieved October 18, 2016 . ^ Wallechinsky, David; Wallace, Irving, eds. (1978). The People's Almanac #2. pp. 806''809. Archived from the original on February 25, 2015 . Retrieved October 18, 2016 . ^ Kytle, Ethan J.; Roberts, Blain (March 15, 2015). "Birth of a Freedom Anthem". The New York Times. ^ Dunaway, 1990, 222''223; Seeger, 1993, 32; see also, Robbie Lieberman, My Song Is My Weapon: People's Songs, American Communism, and the Politics of Culture, 1930''50 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, [1989] 1995) p. 46, p. 185 ^ Ronald Cohen and Dave Samuelson, Songs for Political Action: Folkmusic, Topical Songs And the American Left 1926''1953, book published as part of Bear Family Records 10-CD box set issued in Germany in 1996. ^ Dunaway, 1990, 222''223; Seeger, 1993, 32. ^ Lyndon Johnson, speech of March 15, 1965, accessed March 28, 2007 on HistoryPlace.com ^ "A new normal". Archived from the original on 2011-10-12 . Retrieved 2008-10-01 . ^ "Hearing Voices - Radio Transcript #". Hearingvoices.com . Retrieved 14 March 2022 . ^ From the first King had liked to cite these same inspiration passages. "The arc of the moral universe is long, but it bends toward justice" is from the writings of Theodore Parker the Unitarian abolitionist minister who was King's favorite theologian. Compare the transcript of this 1957 speech given in Washington, D.C."Give Us the Ballot". Address Delivered at the Prayer Pilgrimage for Freedom, Washington D.C. 1957-05-17. . ^ Kotz, Nick (2005). "14. Another Martyr". Judgment days: Lyndon Baines Johnson, Martin Luther King Jr., and the laws that changed America. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. p. 419. ISBN 0-618-08825-3. ^ Alan J. Watt (2010). Farm Workers and the Churches: The Movement in California and Texas, Volume 8. Texas A&M University Press. p. 80. ISBN 9781603441933 . Retrieved 15 July 2016 . ^ Thomas, Evan (2002-09-10). Robert Kennedy: His Life. New York: Simon & Schuster. pp. 322. ISBN 0-7432-0329-1. ^ Dunaway ([1981, 1990] 2008) p. 243. ^ "CAIN: Events: Civil Rights: Bob Purdie (1990) The Northern Ireland Civil Rights Association". Cain.ulster.ac.uk . Retrieved 14 March 2022 . ^ "CAIN: Events: Civil Rights - "We Shall Overcome" .... published by the Northern Ireland Civil Rights Association (NICRA; 1978)". Cain.ulster.ac.uk . Retrieved 14 March 2022 . ^ Allen, Mark (2008). Prague Symphony (PDF) . Praha Publishing. p. 192 . Retrieved 16 October 2016 . ^ McClements, Freya (4 March 2017). "Derry and 'We Shall Overcome': 'We plagiarised an entire movement' ". The Irish Times . Retrieved 27 October 2019 . ^ "The NPR 100 The most important American musical works of the 20th century". Npr.org . Retrieved 14 March 2022 . ^ "We Have Overcome", Media General. January 20, 2009. ^ Ledarbloggens Youtubiana '' hela listan! Svenska Dagbladet, 2 October 2008 (in Swedish) ^ Roger Waters releases "We Shall Overcome" video, Floydian Slip, June 7, 2010 ^ "Lyrics of Hum Honge Kaamyab (Hindi)". Prayogshala.com . Retrieved 9 February 2017 . ^ Dutta, Pranjal. "The African American Bhupen Hazarika". The Sentinel. ^ Siceloff, Steven (25 Nov 2014). "Orion Flight Test to Carry Mementos and Inspirational Items". NASA . Retrieved 22 October 2021 . ^ "Maria Elena Walsh, Argentine writer and singer, dies at 80". Washington Post. Associated Press. 11 January 2011 . Retrieved 7 August 2022 . ^ Seeger, 1993, p. 33 ^ Highlander Reports, 2004, p. 3. ^ a b "We Shall Overcome Foundation, C.A. No. on behalf of itself and all others similarly situated v. The Richmond Organization, Inc. (TRO Inc.) and Ludlow Music, Inc" (PDF) . S.D.N.Y. Retrieved 13 July 2016 . ^ " 'We Shall Overcome' belongs to Cincinnati". Cincinnati Enquirer. Gannett Company . Retrieved 13 July 2016 . ^ Gamboa, Isaias; Henry, JoAnne F.; Owen, Audrey (2012). We Shall Overcome: Sacred Song On The Devil's Tongue. Beverly Hills, California: Amapola. ISBN 978-0615475288. ^ " 'Happy Birthday' Legal Team Turns Attention to 'We Shall Overcome' ". Billboard. 12 April 2016 . Retrieved April 15, 2016 . ^ "Judge throws out 57-year-old copyright on 'We Shall Overcome' ". Ars Technica. September 11, 2017 . Retrieved September 11, 2017 . ^ Karr, Rick (September 11, 2017). "Federal Judge Rules First Verse Of 'We Shall Overcome' Public Domain". Npr.org . Retrieved September 11, 2017 . ^ As published in copyright registration numbers EU 645288 (27 October 1960) and EP 179877 (7 October 1963). ^ Gardner, Eriq. "Song Publisher Agrees 'We Shall Overcome' Is in Public Domain in Legal Settlement". Hollywood Reporter . Retrieved 26 January 2018 . ^ "Wolf Haldenstein Frees the Copyright to we Shall Overcome, the US's Most Powerful Song". Whafh.com . Retrieved 3 February 2018 . ^ "Stipulation and Order of Dismissal With Prejudice" (PDF) . Whafh.com . Retrieved March 14, 2022 . References [ edit ] Dunaway, David, How Can I Keep from Singing: Pete Seeger, (orig. pub. 1981, reissued 1990). Da Capo, New York, ISBN 0-306-80399-2.___, "The We Shall Overcome Fund". Highlander Reports, newsletter of the Highlander Research and Education Center, August''November 2004, p. 3.We Shall Overcome, PBS Home Video 174, 1990, 58 minutes.Further reading [ edit ] Sing for Freedom: The Story of the Civil Rights Movement Through Its Songs: Compiled and edited by Guy and Candie Carawan; foreword by Julian Bond (New South Books, 2007), comprising two classic collections of freedom songs: We Shall Overcome (1963) and Freedom Is A Constant Struggle (1968), reprinted in a single edition. The book includes a major new introduction by Guy and Candie Carawan, words and music to the songs, important documentary photographs, and firsthand accounts by participants in the civil rights movement. Available from Highlander Center.We Shall Overcome! Songs of the Southern Freedom Movement: Julius Lester, editorial assistant. Ethel Raim, music editor: Additional musical transcriptions: Joseph Byrd [and] Guy Carawan. New York: Oak Publications, 1963.Freedom is a Constant Struggle, compiled and edited by Guy and Candie Carawan. Oak Publications, 1968.Alexander Tsesis, We Shall Overcome: A History of Civil Rights and the Law. Yale University Press, 2008.We Shall Overcome: A Song that Changed the World, by Stuart Stotts, illustrated by Terrance Cummings, foreword by Pete Seeger. New York: Clarion Books, 2010.Sing for Freedom, Folkways Records, produced by Guy and Candie Carawan, and the Highlander Center. Field recordings from 1960 to 1988, with the Freedom Singers, Birmingham Movement Choir, Georgia Sea Island Singers, Doc Reese, Phil Ochs, Pete Seeger, Len Chandler, and many others. Smithsonian-Folkways CD version 1990.We Shall Overcome: The Complete Carnegie Hall Concert, June 8, 1963, Historic Live recording June 8, 1963. 2-disc set, includes the full concert, starring Pete Seeger, with the Freedom Singers, Columbia # 45312, 1989. Re-released 1997 by Sony as a box CD set.Voices Of The Civil Rights Movement: Black American Freedom Songs 1960''1966. Box CD set, with the Freedom Singers, Fanny Lou Hammer, and Bernice Johnson Reagon. Smithsonian-Folkways CD ASIN: B000001DJT (1997).Durman, C 2015, 'We Shall Overcome: Essays on a Great American Song edited by Victor V. Bobetsky', Music Reference Services Quarterly, vol. 8, iss. 3, pp. 185''187Graham, D 2016, "Who Owns 'We Shall Overcome'?", The Atlantic, 14 April, accessed 28 April 2017, Who Owns 'We Shall Overcome'?Clark, B. & Borchert, S 2015, "Pete Seeger, Musical Revolutionary", Monthly Review, vol. 66, no. 8, pp. 20''29External links [ edit ] Wikisource has original text related to this article:
    We Shall Overcome Lyrics download in PDF.We Shall Overcome on National Public RadioLyricsAuthorized Profile of Guy Carawan with history of the song, "We Shall Overcome" from the Association of Cultural EquityFreedom in the Air: Albany Georgia. 1961''62. SNCC #101. Recorded by Guy Carawan, produced for the Student Non-Violent Coordinating Committee by Guy Carawan and Alan Lomax. "Freedom In the Air ... is a record of the 1961 protest in Albany, Georgia, when, two weeks before Christmas, 737 people brought the town nearly to a halt to force its integration. The record's never been reissued and that's a shame, as it's a moving document of a community through its protest songs, church services, and experiences in the thick of the civil rights struggle."'--Nathan Salsburg, host, Root Hog or Die, East Village Radio, January 2007.Susanne's Folksong-Notizen, excerpts from various articles, liner notes, etc. about "We Shall Overcome".Musical Transcription of "We Shall Overcome," based on a recording of Pete Seeger's version, sung with the SNCC Freedom Singers on the 1963 live Carnegie Hall recording, and the 1988 version by Pete Seeger sung at a reunion concert with Pete and the Freedom Singers on the anthology, Sing for Freedom, recorded in the field 1960''88 and edited and annotated by Guy and Candie Carawan, released in 1990 as Smithsonian-Folkways CD SF 40032.NPR news article including full streaming versions of Pete Seeger's classic 1963 live Carnegie Hall recording and Bruce Springsteen's tribute version."Pete Seeger & the story of 'We Shall Overcome'" from 1968 interview on The Pop Chronicles."Something About That Song Haunts You", essay on the history of "We Shall Overcome," Complicated Fun, June 9, 2006."Howie Richmond Views Craft Of Song: Publishing Giant Celebrates 50 Years As TRO Founder", by Irv Lichtman, Billboard, 8, 28, 1999. Excerpt: "Key folk songs in the [TRO] catalog, as arranged by a number of folklorists, are 'We Shall Overcome,' 'Kisses Sweeter Than Wine' 'On Top Of Old Smokey,' 'So Long, It's Been Good To Know You,' 'Goodnight Irene,' 'If I Had A Hammer,' 'Tom Dooley,' and 'Rock Island Line.'"
  Evans, Eli | Encyclopedia.com
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    EVANS, ELI (1936'' ), U.S. administrator and Jewish historian. Evans was born in Durham, North Carolina, where his father served six terms as mayor from 1950 to 1962. His grandmother founded the first southern chapter of the Hadassah organization in the pre-World War i period.
    After graduating from the University of North Carolina in 1958, he took a law degree at Yale University in 1963. He worked in various branches of government, state and national, as a speechwriter for President Lyndon Johnson, and as a White House assistant.
    In 1973, he published The Provincials: A Personal History of Jews in the South. The book provided an insight into the Jewry of the southern United States, which had never been studied in depth previously. One of Evans' most revealing statistics was that more than 45 Jews held mayorships and other leading government positions in southern communities. The book generated a new field of study of southern Jewry.
    Turning his focus to philanthropy, in 1977 Evans became the first president of the Revson Foundation, the charitable organization started by Charles Revson, the founder of Revlon. He guided the foundation in four specific areas: urban affairs, with special emphasis on New York City; education; bio-medical research policy; and Jewish philanthropy and education.
    In the Jewish field, the foundation made a number of significant gifts. The first major grant helped to underwrite the ten-part television series Civilization and the Jews, narrated by Abba Eban. A second gift made possible the production of Sesame Street in Hebrew by Israel Education Television. A further large gift was allocated to the Jewish Museum, New York, for its remodeling and expansion to provide an electronics education center on all aspects of Judaism.
    In 1988 Evans published a biography of the Civil War secretary of state Judah P. Benjamin: The Jewish Confederate. Evans mined previously untapped sources and demonstrated aspects of Benjamin's personality that reflected the continuing strain of his Judaism even though the well-known southerner did not practice his faith. In 1993 he published a collection of essays entitled The Lonely Days Were Sundays: Reflections of a Jewish Southerner.
    Evans retired from the Revson Foundation in 2003. In 2004 the foundation honored its president emeritus with a substantial financial gift to the Carolina Center for Jewish Studies at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill to establish a program in Evans' name to support outreach activities on campus and in communities across North Carolina. The center, which was established at unc's College of Arts and Sciences in 2003, engages in teaching and research to explore Jewish history, culture, and religion in the United States and abroad. Involved with the center for Jewish studies since its inception, Evans serves as chairman of the advisory board.
    Often referred to as "the poet laureate of southern Jews," Evans has served as the voice, as well as the heart and soul, of both his fellow southerners and fellow Americans.
    [David Geffen /
    Ruth Beloff (2nd ed.)]
  Leo Frank - Wikipedia
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    American factory superintendent and lynching victim
    Leo Frank
    BornLeo Max Frank
    ( 1884-04-17 ) April 17, 1884DiedAugust 17, 1915 (1915-08-17) (aged 31)Cause of deathLynchingResting placeNew Mount Carmel Cemetery, Glendale, New York 40°41'²34'"N 73°52'²52'"W >> / >> 40.69269°N 73.88115°W >> / 40.69269; -73.88115 >> ( Leo Frank's resting place ) EducationBachelor's degree in mechanical engineering (1906), pencil manufacturing apprenticeship (1908)Alma materCornell UniversityEmployer(s)National Pencil Company, Atlanta (1908''1915)Criminal chargeConvicted on August 25, 1913 for the murder of Mary PhaganCriminal penaltyDeath by hanging (1913); commuted to life imprisonment (1915)SpouseLucille Selig
    '‹
    (
    m. 1910)
    '‹
    Leo Max Frank (April 17, 1884 '' August 17, 1915) was an American factory superintendent who was convicted in 1913 of the murder of a 13-year-old employee, Mary Phagan, in Atlanta, Georgia. His trial, conviction, and appeals attracted national attention. His lynching two years later, in response to the commutation of his death sentence, became the focus of social, regional, political, and racial concerns, particularly regarding antisemitism. Today, the consensus of researchers is that Frank was wrongly convicted and Jim Conley was likely the actual murderer.
    Born to a Jewish-American family in Texas, Frank was raised in New York and earned a degree in mechanical engineering from Cornell University before moving to Atlanta in 1908. Marrying in 1910, he involved himself with the city's Jewish community and was elected president of the Atlanta chapter of the B'nai B'rith, a Jewish fraternal organization, in 1912. At that time, there were growing concerns regarding child labor at factories. One of these children was Mary Phagan, who worked at the National Pencil Company where Frank was director. The girl was strangled on April 26, 1913, and found dead in the factory's cellar the next morning. Two notes, made to look as if she had written them, were found beside her body. Based on the mention of a "night witch", they implicated the night watchman, Newt Lee. Over the course of their investigations, the police arrested several men, including Lee, Frank, and Jim Conley, a janitor at the factory.
    On May 24, 1913, Frank was indicted on a charge of murder and the case opened at Fulton County Superior Court, July 28, 1913. The prosecution relied heavily on the testimony of Conley, who described himself as an accomplice in the aftermath of the murder, and who the defense at the trial argued was, in fact, the perpetrator of the murder. A guilty verdict was announced on August 25. Frank and his lawyers made a series of unsuccessful appeals; their final appeal to the Supreme Court of the United States failed in April 1915. Considering arguments from both sides as well as evidence not available at trial, Governor John M. Slaton commuted Frank's sentence from capital punishment to life imprisonment.
    The case attracted national press attention and many reporters deemed the conviction a travesty. Within Georgia, this outside criticism fueled antisemitism and hatred toward Frank. On August 16, 1915, he was kidnapped from prison by a group of armed men, and lynched at Marietta, Mary Phagan's hometown, the next morning. The new governor vowed to punish the lynchers, who included prominent Marietta citizens, but nobody was charged. In 1986, Frank was posthumously pardoned by the Georgia State Board of Pardons and Paroles, although not officially absolved of the crime. The case has inspired books, movies, plays, and a TV miniseries.
    His case spurred the creation of the Anti-Defamation League and the resurgence of the Ku Klux Klan.[1]
    Background Social and economic conditions In the early 20th century, Atlanta, Georgia's capital city, underwent significant economic and social change. To serve a growing economy based on manufacturing and commerce, many people left the countryside to relocate in Atlanta.[2][3] Men from the traditional and paternalistic rural society felt it degrading that women were moving to the city to work in factories.[4]
    During this era, Atlanta's rabbis and Jewish community leaders helped to resolve animosity toward Jews. In the half-century from 1895, David Marx was a prominent figure in the city. In order to aid assimilation, Marx's Reform temple adopted Americanized appearances. Friction developed between the city's German Jews, who were integrated, and Russian Jews who had recently immigrated. Marx said the new residents were "barbaric and ignorant" and believed their presence would create new antisemitic attitudes and a situation which made possible Frank's guilty verdict.[5] Despite their success, many Jews recognized themselves as different from the Gentile majority and were uncomfortable with their image.[n 1] Despite his own acceptance by Gentiles, Marx believed that "in isolated instances there is no prejudice entertained for the individual Jew, but there exists wide-spread and deep seated prejudice against Jews as an entire people."[7][n 2][n 3]
    An example of the type of tension that Marx feared occurred in April 1913: at a conference on child labor, some participants blamed the problem, in part, on the fact that many factories were Jewish-owned.[9] Historian Leonard Dinnerstein summarized Atlanta's situation in 1913 as follows:
    The pathological conditions in the city menaced the home, the state, the schools, the churches, and, in the words of a contemporary Southern sociologist, the 'wholesome industrial life.' The institutions of the city were obviously unfit to handle urban problems. Against this background, the murder of a young girl in 1913 triggered a violent reaction of mass aggression, hysteria, and prejudice.[10]
    Early life Leo Max Frank was born in Cuero, Texas[11] on April 17, 1884 to Rudolph Frank and Rachel "Rae" Jacobs.[12] The family moved to Brooklyn in 1884 when Leo was three months old.[13] He attended New York City public schools and graduated from Pratt Institute in 1902. He then attended Cornell University, where he studied mechanical engineering. After graduating in 1906, he worked briefly as a draftsman and as a testing engineer.[14]
    At the invitation of his uncle Moses Frank, Leo traveled to Atlanta for two weeks in late October 1907 to meet a delegation of investors for a position with the National Pencil Company, a manufacturing plant in which Moses was a major shareholder.[12] Frank accepted the position, and traveled to Germany to study pencil manufacturing at the Eberhard Faber pencil factory. After a nine-month apprenticeship, Frank returned to the United States and began working at the National Pencil Company in August 1908.[14] Frank became superintendent of the factory the following month, earning $180 per month plus a portion of the factory's profits.[15]
    Frank was introduced to Lucille Selig shortly after he arrived in Atlanta.[16] She came from a prominent, upper-middle class Jewish family of industrialists who, two generations earlier, had founded the first synagogue in Atlanta.[n 4] They married in November 1910.[18] Frank described his married life as happy.[19]
    In 1912, Frank was elected president of the Atlanta chapter of the B'nai B'rith, a Jewish fraternal organization.[20] The Jewish community in Atlanta was the largest in the Southern United States, and the Franks belonged to a cultured and philanthropic community whose leisure pursuits included opera and bridge.[21][22] Although the Southern United States was not specifically known for its antisemitism, Frank's northern culture and Jewish faith added to the sense that he was different.[23]
    Murder of Mary Phagan Phagan's early life Mary Phagan was born on June 1, 1899, into an established Georgia family of tenant farmers.[24][25] Her father died before she was born. Shortly after Mary's birth, her mother, Frances Phagan, moved the family back to their hometown of Marietta, Georgia.[26] During or after 1907, they again relocated to East Point, Georgia, in southwest Atlanta, where Frances opened a boarding house.[27] Mary Phagan left school at age 10 to work part-time in a textile mill.[28] In 1912, after her mother married John William Coleman, the family moved into the city of Atlanta.[26] That spring, Phagan took a job with the National Pencil Company, where she earned ten cents an hour operating a knurling machine that inserted rubber erasers into the metal tips of pencils, and worked 55 hours per week.[28][n 5] She worked across the hallway from Leo Frank's office.[28][30]
    Discovery of Phagan's body On April 21, 1913, Phagan was laid off due to a materials shortage.[29] Around noon on April 26, she went to the factory to claim her pay. The next day, shortly before 3:00 a.m., the factory's night watchman, Newt Lee, went to the factory basement to use the toilet.[31] After leaving the toilet, Lee discovered Phagan's body in the rear of the basement near an incinerator and called the police.
    Her dress was up around her waist and a strip from her petticoat had been torn off and wrapped around her neck. Her face was blackened and scratched, and her head was bruised and battered. A 7-foot (2.1 m) strip of 1 ' 4 -inch (6.4 mm) wrapping cord was tied into a loop around her neck, buried 1 ' 4 in (6.4 mm) deep, showing that she had been strangled. Her underwear was still around her hips, but stained with blood and torn open. Her skin was covered with ashes and dirt from the floor, initially making it appear to first responding officers that she and her assailant had struggled in the basement.[32]
    A service ramp at the rear of the basement led to a sliding door that opened into an alley; the police found the door had been tampered with so it could be opened without unlocking it. Later examination found bloody fingerprints on the door, as well as a metal pipe that had been used as a crowbar.[33] Some evidence at the crime scene was improperly handled by the police investigators: a trail in the dirt (from the elevator shaft) along which police believed Phagan had been dragged was trampled; the footprints were never identified.[34]
    Two notes were found in a pile of rubbish by Phagan's head, and became known as the "murder notes". One said: "he said he wood love me land down play like the night witch did it but that long tall black negro did boy his slef." The other said, "mam that negro hire down here did this i went to make water and he push me down that hole a long tall negro black that hoo it wase long sleam tall negro i write while play with me." The phrase "night witch" was thought to mean "night watch[man]"; when the notes were initially read aloud, Lee, who was black, said: "Boss, it looks like they are trying to lay it on me."[n 6] Lee was arrested that morning based on these notes and his apparent familiarity with the body '' he stated that the girl was white, when the police, because of the filth and darkness in the basement, initially thought she was black. A trail leading back to the elevator suggested to police that the body had been moved by Lee.[36][37]
    Police investigation One of the two murder notes found near the body
    In addition to Lee, the police arrested a friend of Phagan's for the crime.[38] Gradually, the police became convinced that these were not the culprits. By Monday, the police had theorized that the murder occurred on the second floor (the same as Frank's office) based on hair found on a lathe and what appeared to be blood on the ground of the second floor.[39]
    Both Newt Lee, after the discovery of Phagan's body, and the police, just after 4 a.m., had unsuccessfully tried to telephone Frank early on Sunday, April 27.[40] The police contacted him later that morning and he agreed to accompany them to the factory.[41] When the police arrived after 7 a.m. without telling the specifics of what happened at the factory, Frank seemed extremely nervous, trembling, and pale; his voice was hoarse, and he was rubbing his hands and asking questions before the police could answer. Frank said he was not familiar with the name Mary Phagan and would need to check his payroll book. The detectives took Frank to the morgue to see Phagan's body and then to the factory, where Frank viewed the crime scene and walked the police through the entire building. Frank returned home about 10:45 a.m. At this point, Frank was not considered a suspect.[42]
    On Monday, April 28, Frank, accompanied by his attorney, Luther Rosser, gave a written deposition to the police that provided a brief timeline of his activities on Saturday. He said Phagan was in his office between 12:05 and 12:10 p.m., that Lee had arrived at 4 p.m. but was asked to return later, and that Frank had a confrontation with ex-employee James Gantt at 6 p.m. as Frank was leaving and Lee arriving. Frank explained that Lee's time card for Sunday morning had several gaps (Lee was supposed to punch in every half-hour) that Frank had missed when he discussed the time card with police on Sunday. At Rosser's insistence, Frank exposed his body to demonstrate that he had no cuts or injuries and the police found no blood on the suit that Frank said he had worn on Saturday. The police found no blood stains on the laundry at Frank's house.[43]
    Frank then met with his assistant, N. V. Darley, and Harry Scott of the Pinkerton National Detective Agency, whom Frank hired to investigate the case and prove his innocence.[44] The Pinkerton detectives would investigate many leads, ranging from crime scene evidence to allegations of sexual misconduct on the part of Frank. The Pinkertons were required to submit duplicates of all evidence to the police, including any that hurt Frank's case. Unbeknownst to Frank, however, was Scott's close ties with the police, particularly his best friend, detective John Black who believed in Frank's guilt from the outset.[n 7]
    On Tuesday, April 29, Black went to Lee's residence at 11 a.m. looking for evidence, and found a blood-smeared shirt at the bottom of a burn barrel.[46] The blood was smeared high up on the armpits and the shirt smelled unused, suggesting to the police that it was a plant. The detectives, suspicious of Frank due to his nervous behavior throughout his interviews, believed that Frank had arranged the plant.[47]
    Frank was subsequently arrested around 11:30 a.m. at the factory. Steve Oney states that "no single development had persuaded ... [the police] that Leo Frank had murdered Mary Phagan. Instead, to the cumulative weight of Sunday's suspicions and Monday's misgivings had been added several last factors that tipped the scale against the superintendent."[48] These factors were the dropped charges against two suspects; the rejection of rumors that Phagan had been seen on the streets, making Frank the last person to admit seeing Phagan; Frank's meeting with the Pinkertons; and a "shifting view of Newt Lee's role in the affair."[49] The police were convinced Lee was involved as Frank's accomplice and that Frank was trying to implicate him. To bolster their case, the police staged a confrontation between Lee and Frank while both were still in custody; there were conflicting accounts of this meeting, but the police interpreted it as further implicating Frank.[50]
    On Wednesday, April 30, a coroner's inquest was held. Frank testified about his activities on Saturday and other witnesses produced corroboration. A young man said that Phagan had complained to him about Frank. Several former employees spoke of Frank flirting with other women; one said she was actually propositioned. The detectives admitted that "they so far had obtained no conclusive evidence or clues in the baffling mystery ...". Lee and Frank were both ordered to be detained.[51]
    In May, the detective William J. Burns traveled to Atlanta to offer further assistance in the case.[52] However, his Burns Agency withdrew from the case later that month. C. W. Tobie, a detective from the Chicago affiliate who was assigned to the case, said that the agency "came down here to investigate a murder case, not to engage in petty politic[s]."[53] The agency quickly became disillusioned with the many societal implications of the case, most notably the notion that Frank was able to evade prosecution due to his being a rich Jew, buying off the police and paying for private detectives.[54]
    James "Jim" Conley The prosecution based much of its case on the testimony of Jim Conley, the factory's janitor, who is believed by many historians to be the actual murderer.[n 8] The police had arrested Conley on May 1 after he had been seen washing red stains out of a blue work shirt; detectives examined it for blood, but determined that it was rust as Conley had claimed, and returned it.[57] Conley was still in police custody two weeks later when he gave his first formal statement. He said that, on the day of the murder, he had been visiting saloons, shooting dice, and drinking. His story was called into question when a witness told detectives that "a black negro ... dressed in dark blue clothing and hat" had been seen in the lobby of the factory on the day of the murder. Further investigation determined that Conley could read and write,[58] and there were similarities in his spelling with that found on the murder notes. On May 24, he admitted he had written the notes, swearing that Frank had called him to his office the day before the murder and told him to write them.[59] After testing Conley again on his spelling '' he spelled "night watchman" as "night witch" '' the police were convinced he had written the notes. They were skeptical about the rest of his story, not only because it implied premeditation by Frank, but also because it suggested that Frank had confessed to Conley and involved him.[60]
    In a new affidavit (his second affidavit and third statement), Conley admitted he had lied about his Friday meeting with Frank. He said he had met Frank on the street on Saturday, and was told to follow him to the factory. Frank told him to hide in a wardrobe to avoid being seen by two women who were visiting Frank in his office. He said Frank dictated the murder notes for him to write, gave him cigarettes, then told him to leave the factory. Afterward, Conley said he went out drinking and saw a movie. He said he did not learn of the murder until he went to work on Monday.[61]
    The police were satisfied with the new story, and both The Atlanta Journal and The Atlanta Georgian gave the story front-page coverage. Three officials of the pencil company were not convinced and said so to the Journal. They contended that Conley had followed another employee into the building, intending to rob her, but found Phagan was an easier target.[61] The police placed little credence in the officials' theory, but had no explanation for the failure to locate Phagan's purse that other witnesses had testified she carried that day.[62] They were also concerned that Conley did not mention that he was aware a crime had been committed when he wrote the notes, suggesting Frank had simply dictated the notes to Conley arbitrarily. To resolve their doubts, the police attempted on May 28 to arrange a confrontation between Frank and Conley. Frank exercised his right not to meet without his attorney, who was out of town. The police were quoted in The Atlanta Constitution saying that this refusal was an indication of Frank's guilt, and the meeting never took place.[63]
    On May 29, Conley was interviewed for four hours.[64][65] His new affidavit said that Frank told him, "he had picked up a girl back there and let her fall and that her head hit against something." Conley said he and Frank took the body to the basement via the elevator, then returned to Frank's office where the murder notes were dictated. Conley then hid in the wardrobe after the two had returned to the office. He said Frank gave him $200, but took it back, saying, "Let me have that and I will make it all right with you Monday if I live and nothing happens." Conley's affidavit concluded, "The reason I have not told this before is I thought Mr. Frank would get out and help me out and I decided to tell the whole truth about this matter."[66] At trial, Conley changed his story concerning the $200. He said Frank decided to withhold the money until Conley had burned Phagan's body in the basement furnace.[67]
    The Georgian hired William Manning Smith to represent Conley for $40. Smith was known for specializing in representing black clients, and had successfully defended a black man against an accusation of rape by a white woman. He had also taken an elderly black woman's civil case as far as the Georgia Supreme Court. Although Smith believed Conley had told the truth in his final affidavit, he became concerned that Conley was giving long jailhouse interviews with crowds of reporters. Smith was also anxious about reporters from the Hearst papers, who had taken Frank's side. He arranged for Conley to be moved to a different jail, and severed his own relationship with the Georgian.[68]
    On February 24, 1914, Conley was sentenced to a year in jail for being an accomplice after the fact to the murder of Mary Phagan.[69]
    Media coverage The Atlanta Georgian headline on April 29, 1913, showing that the police suspected Frank and Newt Lee.
    The Atlanta Constitution broke the story of the murder and was soon in competition with The Atlanta Journal and The Atlanta Georgian. Forty extra editions came out the day Phagan's murder was reported. The Atlanta Georgian published a doctored morgue photo of Phagan, in which her head was shown spliced onto the body of another girl, and ran headlines "Says Women Overheard Conley Confess" and "Says Women Heard Conley Confess" on July 12.[70] The papers offered a total of $1,800 in reward money for information leading to the apprehension of the murderer.[71] Soon after the murder, Atlanta's mayor criticized the police for their steady release of information to the public. The governor, noting the reaction of the public to press sensationalism soon after Lee's and Frank's arrests, organized ten militia companies in case they were needed to repulse mob action against the prisoners.[72] Coverage of the case in the local press continued nearly unabated throughout the investigation, trial, and subsequent appeal process.
    Newspaper reports throughout the period combined real evidence, unsubstantiated rumors, and journalistic speculation. Dinnerstein wrote, "Characterized by innuendo, misrepresentation, and distortion, the yellow journalism account of Mary Phagan's death aroused an anxious city, and within a few days, a shocked state."[73] Different segments of the population focused on different aspects. Atlanta's working class saw Frank as "a defiler of young girls", while the German-Jewish community saw him as "an exemplary man and loyal husband."[74] Albert Lindemann, author of The Jew Accused, opined that "ordinary people" may have had difficulty evaluating the often unreliable information and in "suspend[ing] judgment over a long period of time" while the case developed.[75] As the press shaped public opinion, much of the public's attention was directed at the police and the prosecution, whom they expected to bring Phagan's killer to justice. The prosecutor, Hugh Dorsey, had recently lost two high-profile murder cases; one state newspaper wrote that "another defeat, and in a case where the feeling was so intense, would have been, in all likelihood, the end of Mr. Dorsey, as solicitor."[76]
    Trial The courtroom on July 28, 1913. Dorsey is examining witness Newt Lee. Frank is in the center.
    On May 23, 1913, a grand jury convened to hear evidence for an indictment against Leo Frank for the murder of Mary Phagan. The prosecutor, Hugh Dorsey, presented only enough information to obtain the indictment, assuring the jury that additional information would be provided during the trial. The next day, May 24, the jury voted for an indictment.[77] Meanwhile, Frank's legal team suggested to the media that Jim Conley was the actual killer, and put pressure on another grand jury to indict him. The jury foreman, on his own authority, convened the jury on July 21; on Dorsey's advice, they decided not to indict Conley.[78]
    On July 28, the trial began at the Fulton County Superior Court (old city hall building). The judge, Leonard S. Roan, had been serving as a judge in Georgia since 1900.[79] The prosecution team was led by Dorsey and included William Smith (Conley's attorney and Dorsey's jury consultant). Frank was represented by a team of eight lawyers '' including jury selection specialists '' led by Luther Rosser, Reuben Arnold, and Herbert Haas.[80] In addition to the hundreds of spectators inside, a large crowd gathered outside to watch the trial through the windows. The defense, in their legal appeals, would later cite the crowds as factors in intimidation of the witnesses and jury.[81]
    Both legal teams, in planning their trial strategy, considered the implications of trying a white man based on the testimony of a black man in front of an early 1900s Georgia jury. Jeffrey Melnick, author of Black-Jewish Relations on Trial: Leo Frank and Jim Conley in the New South, writes that the defense tried to picture Conley as "a new kind of African American '' anarchic, degraded, and dangerous."[82] Dorsey, however, pictured Conley as "a familiar type" of "old negro", like a minstrel or plantation worker.[82] Dorsey's strategy played on prejudices of the white 1900s Georgia observers, i.e., that a black man could not have been intelligent enough to make up a complicated story.[83] The prosecution argued that Conley's statement explaining the immediate aftermath of the murder was true, that Frank was the murderer, and that Frank had dictated the murder notes to Conley in an effort to pin the crime on Newt Lee, the night watchman.[84]
    The prosecution presented witnesses who testified to bloodstains and strands of hair found on the lathe, to support their theory that the murder occurred on the factory's second floor in the machine room near Frank's office.[84][85] The defense denied that the murder occurred on the second floor. Both sides contested the significance of physical evidence that suggested the place of the murder. Material found around Phagan's neck was shown to be present throughout the factory. The prosecution interpreted the scene in the basement to support Conley's story '' that the body was carried there by elevator '' while the defense suggested that the drag marks on the floor indicated that Conley carried the body down a ladder and then dragged it across the floor.[86] The defense argued that Conley was the murderer and that Newt Lee helped Conley write the two murder notes. The defense brought many witnesses to support Frank's account of his movements, which indicated he did not have enough time to commit the crime.[87][88][89]
    The defense, to support their theory that Conley murdered Phagan in a robbery, focused on Phagan's missing purse. Conley claimed in court that he saw Frank place the purse in his office safe, although he denied having seen the purse before the trial. Another witness testified that, on the Monday after the murder, the safe was open and there was no purse in it.[90] The significance of Phagan's torn pay envelope was disputed by both sides.[91]
    Frank's alleged sexual behavior The prosecution focused on Frank's alleged sexual behavior.[n 9] They alleged that Frank, with Conley's assistance, regularly met with women in his office for sexual relations. On the day of the murder, Conley said he saw Phagan go upstairs, from where he heard a scream coming shortly after. He then said he dozed off; when he woke up, Frank called him upstairs and showed him Phagan's body, admitting that he had hurt her. Conley repeated statements from his affidavits that he and Frank took Phagan's body to the basement via the elevator, before returning in the elevator to the office where Frank dictated the murder notes.[93][94]
    Conley was cross-examined by the defense for 16 hours over three days, but the defense failed to break his story. The defense then moved to have Conley's entire testimony concerning the alleged rendezvous stricken from the record. Judge Roan noted that an early objection might have been upheld, but since the jury could not forget what it had heard, he allowed the evidence to stand.[95][96] The prosecution, to support Frank's alleged expectation of a visit from Phagan, produced Helen Ferguson, a factory worker who first informed Phagan's parents of her death.[97] Ferguson testified that she had tried to get Phagan's pay on Friday from Frank, but was told that Phagan would have to come in person. Both the person behind the pay window and the woman behind Ferguson in the pay line disputed this version of events, testifying that in accordance with his normal practice, Frank did not disburse pay that day.[98]
    The defense called a number of factory girls, who testified that they had never seen Frank flirting with or touching the girls, and that they considered him to be of good character.[99] In the prosecution's rebuttal, Dorsey called "a steady parade of former factory workers" to ask them the question, "Do you know Mr. Frank's character for lasciviousness?" The answers were usually "bad".[100]
    Timeline The Atlanta Journal 's diagram of Jim Conley's account of the events after Phagan's murder
    The prosecution realized early on that issues relating to time would be an essential part of its case.[101] At trial, each side presented witnesses to support their version of the timeline for the hours before and after the murder. The starting point was the time of death; the prosecution, relying on the analysis of stomach contents by their expert witness, argued that Phagan died between 12:00 and 12:15 p.m.
    A prosecution witness, Monteen Stover, said she had gone into the office to get her paycheck, waiting there from 12:05 to 12:10, and did not see Frank in his office. The prosecution's theory was that Stover did not see Frank because he was at that time murdering Phagan in the metal room. Stover's account did not match Frank's initial account that he had not left the office between noon and 12:30.[102][103] Other testimony indicated that Phagan exited the trolley (or tram) between 12:07 and 12:10. From the stop it was a two- to four-minute walk, suggesting that Stover arrived first, making her testimony and its implications irrelevant: Frank could not be killing Phagan because at the time she had not yet arrived.[n 10][n 11]
    Lemmie Quinn, foreman of the metal room, testified that he spoke briefly with Frank in his office at 12:20.[106] Frank had not mentioned Quinn when the police first interviewed him about his whereabouts at noontime on April 26. Frank had said at the coroner's inquest that Quinn arrived less than ten minutes after Phagan had left his office,[107] and during the murder trial said Quinn arrived hardly five minutes after Phagan left.[108] According to Conley and several experts called by the defense, it would have taken at least thirty minutes to murder Phagan, take the body to the basement, return to the office, and write the murder notes. By the defense's calculations, Frank's time was fully accounted for from 11:30 a.m. to 1:30 p.m., except for eighteen minutes between 12:02 and 12:20.[109][110] Hattie Hall, a stenographer, said at trial that Frank had specifically requested that she come in that Saturday and that Frank had been working in his office from 11:00 to nearly noon. The prosecution labeled Quinn's testimony as "a fraud" and reminded the jury that early in the police investigation Frank had not mentioned Quinn.[111]
    Newt Lee, the night watchman, arrived at work shortly before 4:00 and Frank, who was normally calm, came bustling out of his office.[112] Frank told Lee that he had not yet finished his own work and asked Lee to return at 6:00.[113] Newt Lee noticed that Frank was very agitated and asked if he could sleep in the packing room, but Frank was insistent that Lee leave the building and told Lee to go out and have a good time in town before coming back.[114]
    When Lee returned at 6:00, James Gantt had also arrived. Lee told police that Gantt, a former employee who had been fired by Frank after $2 was found missing from the cash box, wanted to look for two pairs of shoes he had left at the factory. Frank allowed Gantt in, although Lee said that Frank appeared to be upset by Gantt's appearance.[115] Frank arrived home at 6:25; at 7:00, he called Lee to determine if everything had gone all right with Gantt.[116]
    Conviction and sentencing During the trial, the prosecution alleged bribery and witness tampering attempts by the Frank legal team.[117] Meanwhile, the defense requested a mistrial because it believed the jurors had been intimidated by the people inside and outside the courtroom, but the motion was denied.[n 12] Fearing for the safety of Frank and his lawyers in case of an acquittal, Roan and the defense agreed that neither Frank nor his defense attorneys would be present when the verdict was read.[n 13] On August 25, 1913, after less than four hours of deliberation, the jury reached a unanimous guilty verdict convicting Frank of murder.[n 14]
    The Constitution described the scene as Dorsey emerged from the steps of city hall: "...three muscular men swung Mr. Dorsey, (the prosecuting attorney,) on their shoulders and passed him over the heads of the crowd across the street to his office. With hat raised and tears coursing down his cheeks, the victor in Georgia's most noted criminal battle was tumbled over a shrieking throng that wildly proclaimed its admiration."[122]
    On August 26, the day after the guilty verdict was reached by the jury, Judge Roan brought counsel into private chambers and sentenced Leo Frank to death by hanging with the date set to October 10. The defense team issued a public protest, alleging that public opinion unconsciously influenced the jury to the prejudice of Frank.[123] This argument was carried forward throughout the appeal process.[124]
    Appeals Under Georgia law at the time, appeals of death penalty cases had to be based on errors of law, not a re-evaluation of the evidence presented at trial.[125] The appeals process began with a reconsideration by the original trial judge. The defense presented a written appeal alleging 115 procedural problems. These included claims of jury prejudice, intimidation of the jury by the crowds outside the courthouse, the admission of Conley's testimony concerning Frank's alleged sexual perversions and activities, and the return of a verdict based on an improper weighing of the evidence. Both sides called forth witnesses involving the charges of prejudice and intimidation; while the defense relied on non-involved witness testimony, the prosecution found support from the testimony of the jurors themselves.[126] On October 31, 1913, Judge Roan denied the motion, adding, "I have thought about this case more than any other I have ever tried. With all the thought I have put on this case, I am not thoroughly convinced that Frank is guilty or innocent. But I do not have to be convinced. The jury was convinced. There is no room to doubt that."[127][128][129][130]
    State appeals The next step, a hearing before the Georgia Supreme Court, was held on December 15. In addition to presenting the existing written record, each side was granted two hours for oral arguments. In addition to the old arguments, the defense focused on the reservations expressed by Judge Roan at the reconsideration hearing, citing six cases where new trials had been granted after the trial judge expressed misgivings about the jury verdict. The prosecution countered with arguments that the evidence convicting Frank was substantial and that listing Judge Roan's doubts in the defense's bill of exceptions was not the proper vehicle for "carry[ing] the views of the judge."[131][132] On February 17, 1914, in a 142-page decision, the court denied Frank a new trial by a 4''2 vote. The majority dismissed the allegations of bias by the jurors, saying the power of determining this rested strictly with the trial judge except when an "abuse of discretion" was proved. It also ruled that spectator influence could only be the basis of a new trial if ruled so by the trial judge. Conley's testimony on Frank's alleged sexual conduct was found to be admissible because, even though it suggested Frank had committed other crimes for which he was not charged, it made Conley's statements more credible and helped to explain Frank's motivation for committing the crime according to the majority. On Judge Roan's stated reservations, the court ruled that these did not trump his legal decision to deny a motion for a new trial.[132][133] The dissenting justices restricted their opinion to Conley's testimony, which they declared should not have been allowed to stand: "It is perfectly clear to us that evidence of prior bad acts of lasciviousness committed by the defendant ... did not tend to prove a preexisting design, system, plan, or scheme, directed toward making an assault upon the deceased or killing her to prevent its disclosure." They concluded that the evidence prejudiced Frank in the jurors' eyes and denied him a fair trial.[133][134]
    The last hearing exhausted Frank's ordinary state appeal rights. On March 7, 1914, Frank's execution was set for April 17 of that year.[135] The defense continued to investigate the case and filed an extraordinary motion[n 15] before the Georgia Supreme Court. This appeal, which would be held before a single justice, Ben Hill, was restricted to raising facts not available at the original trial. The application for appeal resulted in a stay of execution and the hearing opened on April 23, 1914.[137] The defense successfully obtained a number of affidavits from witnesses repudiating their testimony. A state biologist said in a newspaper interview that his microscopic examination of the hair on the lathe shortly after the murder did not match Phagan's. At the same time that the various repudiations were leaked to the newspapers, the state was busy seeking repudiations of the new affidavits. An analysis of the murder notes, which had only been addressed in any detail in the closing arguments, suggested Conley composed them in the basement rather than writing what Frank told him to write in his office. Prison letters written by Conley to Annie Maude Carter were discovered; the defense then argued that these, along with Carter's testimony, implicated Conley was the actual murderer.[138][139]
    The defense also raised a federal constitutional issue on whether Frank's absence from the court when the verdict was announced "constituted deprivation of the due process of law". Different attorneys were brought in to argue this point since Rosser and Arnold had acquiesced in Frank's absence. There was a debate between Rosser and Arnold on whether it should be raised at this time since its significance might be lost with all of the other evidence being presented. Louis Marshall, President of the American Jewish Committee and constitutional lawyer, urged them to raise the point, and the decision was made that it should be made clear that if the extraordinary motion was rejected they intended to appeal through the federal court system and there would be an impression of injustice in the trial.[140] For almost every issue presented by the defense, the state had a response: most of the repudiations were either retracted or disavowed by the witnesses; the question of whether outdated order pads used to write the murder notes had been in the basement before the murder was disputed; the integrity of the defense's investigators were questioned and intimidation and bribery were charged; and the significance of Conley's letters to Annie Carter was disputed.[141] The defense, in its rebuttal, tried to bolster the testimony relating to the murder notes and the Carter letters. (These issues were reexamined later when the governor considered commuting Frank's sentence.)[142] During the defense's closing argument, the issue of the repudiations was put to rest by Judge Hill's ruling that the court could only consider the revocation of testimony if the subject were tried and found guilty of perjury.[143] The judge denied Frank a new trial and the full court upheld the decision on November 14, 1914. The full court also said that the due process issue should have been raised earlier, characterizing what it considered a belated effort as "trifling with the court".[144][145]
    Federal appeals The next step for the Frank team was to appeal the issue through the federal system. The original request for a writ of error on the absence of Frank from the jury's announcement of the verdict was first denied by Justice Joseph Rucker Lamar and then Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr. Both denied the request because they agreed with the Georgia court that the issue was raised too late. The full Supreme Court then heard arguments, but denied the motion without issuing a written decision. However, Holmes said, "I very seriously doubt if the petitioner ... has had due process of law ... because of the trial taking place in the presence of a hostile demonstration and seemingly dangerous crowd, thought by the presiding Judge to be ready for violence unless a verdict of guilty was rendered."[146][147] Holmes's statement, as well as public indignation over this latest rejection by the courts, encouraged Frank's team to attempt a habeas corpus motion, arguing that the threat of crowd violence had forced Frank to be absent from the verdict hearing and constituted a violation of due process. Justice Lamar heard the motion and agreed that the full Supreme Court should hear the appeal.
    On April 19, 1915, the Supreme Court denied the appeal by a 7''2 vote in the case Frank v. Mangum. Part of the decision repeated the message of the last decision: that Frank failed "to raise the objection in due season when fully cognizant of the fact."[148] Holmes and Charles Evans Hughes dissented, with Holmes writing, "It is our duty to declare lynch law as little valid when practiced by a regularly drawn jury as when administered by one elected by a mob intent on death."[149]
    Commutation of sentence Hearing Governor John Slaton and wife
    On April 22, 1915, an application for a commutation of Frank's death sentence was submitted to a three-person Prison Commission in Georgia; it was rejected on June 9 by a vote of 2''1. The dissenter indicated that he felt it was wrong to execute a man "on the testimony of an accomplice, when the circumstances of the crime tend to fix the guilt upon the accomplice."[150] The application then passed to Governor John Slaton. Slaton had been elected in 1912 and his term would end four days after Frank's scheduled execution. In 1913, before Phagan's murder, Slaton agreed to merge his law firm with that of Luther Rosser, who became Frank's lead attorney (Slaton was not directly involved in the original trial). After the commutation, popular Georgia politician Tom Watson attacked Slaton, often focusing on his partnership with Rosser as a conflict of interest.[151][152]
    Slaton opened hearings on June 12. In addition to receiving presentations from both sides with new arguments and evidence, Slaton visited the crime scene and reviewed over 10,000 pages of documents. This included various letters, including one written by Judge Roan shortly before he died asking Slaton to correct his mistake.[153] Slaton also received more than 1,000 death threats. During the hearing, former Governor Joseph Brown warned Slaton, "In all frankness, if Your Excellency wishes to invoke lynch law in Georgia and destroy trial by jury, the way to do it is by retrying this case and reversing all the courts."[154][155][n 16][n 17] According to Tom Watson's biographer, C. Vann Woodward, "While the hearings of the petition to commute were in progress Watson sent a friend to the governor with the promise that if Slaton allowed Frank to hang, Watson would be his 'friend', which would result in his 'becoming United States senator and the master of Georgia politics for twenty years to come.'"[158]
    Slaton produced a 29-page report. In the first part, he criticized outsiders who were unfamiliar with the evidence, especially the press in the North. He defended the trial court's decision, which he felt was sufficient for a guilty verdict. He summarized points of the state's case against Frank that "any reasonable person" would accept and said of Conley that "It is hard to conceive that any man's power of fabrication of minute details could reach that which Conley showed, unless it be the truth." After having made these points, Slaton's narrative changed course and asked the rhetorical question, "Did Conley speak the truth?"[159] Leonard Dinnerstein wrote, "Slaton based his opinions primarily upon the inconsistencies he had discovered in the narrative of Jim Conley."[160] Two factors stood out to Slaton: the transporting of the body to the basement and the murder notes.[161]
    Transport of the body During the initial investigation, police had noted undisturbed human excrement in the elevator shaft, which Conley said he had left there before the murder. Use of the elevator on the Monday after the murder crushed the excrement, which Slaton concluded was an indication that the elevator could not have been used as described by Conley, casting doubt on his testimony.[n 18][n 19][n 20]
    During the commutation hearing, Slaton asked Dorsey to address this issue. Dorsey said that the elevator did not always go all the way to the bottom and could be stopped anywhere. Frank's attorney rebutted this by quoting Conley, who said that the elevator stops when it hits the bottom. Slaton interviewed others and conducted his own tests on his visit to the factory, concluding that every time the elevator made the trip to the basement it touched the bottom. Slaton said, "If the elevator was not used by Conley and Frank in taking the body to the basement, then the explanation of Conley cannot be accepted."[164][n 21]
    Murder notes The murder notes had been analyzed before at the extraordinary motion hearing. Handwriting expert Albert S. Osborn reviewed the previous evidence at the commutation hearing and commented, for the first time, that the notes were written in the third person rather than the first person. He said that the first person would have been more logical since they were intended to be the final statements of a dying Phagan. He argued this was the type of error that Conley would have made, rather than Frank, as Conley was a sweeper and not a Cornell-educated manager like Frank.[166]
    Conley's former attorney, William Smith, had become convinced that his client had committed the murder. Smith produced a 100-page analysis of the notes for the defense. He analyzed "speech and writing patterns" and "spelling, grammar, repetition of adjectives, [and] favorite verb forms". He concluded, "In this article I show clearly that Conley did not tell the truth about those notes."[167] Slaton compared the murder notes, Conley's letters to Annie Maude Carter, and his trial testimony. Throughout these documents, he found similar use of the words "like", "play", "lay", "love", and "hisself". He also found double adjectives such as "long tall negro", "tall, slim build heavy man", and "good long wide piece of cord in his hands".[168]
    Slaton was also convinced that the murder notes were written in the basement, not in Frank's office. Slaton accepted the defense's argument that the notes were written on dated order pads signed by a former employee that were only kept in the basement.[169] Slaton wrote that the employee signed an affidavit stating that, when he left the company in 1912, "he personally packed up all of the duplicate orders ... and sent them down to the basement to be burned. This evidence was never passed upon by the jury and developed since the trial."[170]
    Timing and physical evidence Slaton's narrative touched on other aspects of the evidence and testimony that suggested reasonable doubt. For example, he accepted the defense's argument that charges by Conley of perversion were based on someone coaching him that Jews were circumcised. He accepted the defense's interpretation of the timeline;[171] citing the evidence produced at trial '' including the possibility that Stover did not see Frank because she did not proceed further than the outer office '' he wrote: "Therefore, Monteen Stover must have arrived before Mary Phagan, and while Monteen Stover was in the room it hardly seems possible under the evidence, that Mary Phagan was at that time being murdered."[172] Slaton also said that Phagan's head wound must have bled profusely, yet there was no blood found on the lathe, the ground nearby, in the elevator, or the steps leading downstairs. He also said that Phagan's nostrils and mouth were filled with dirt and sawdust which could only have come from the basement.[173]
    Slaton also commented on Conley's story (that Conley was watching out for the arrival of a lady for Frank on the day of the murder):
    His story necessarily bears the construction that Frank had an engagement with Mary Phagan which no evidence in the case would justify. If Frank had engaged Conley to watch for him, it could only have been for Mary Phagan, since he made no improper suggestion to any other female on that day, and it was undisputed that many did come up prior to 12.00 o'clock, and whom could Frank have been expecting except Mary Phagan under Conley's story. This view cannot be entertained, as an unjustifiable reflection on the young girl.[174]
    Conclusion On Monday, June 21, 1915, Slaton released the order to commute Frank's murder conviction to life imprisonment. Slaton's legal rationale was that there was sufficient new evidence not available at the original trial to justify Frank's actions.[175] He wrote:
    In the Frank case three matters have developed since the trial which did not come before the jury, to-wit: The Carter notes, the testimony of Becker, indicating the death notes were written in the basement, and the testimony of Dr. Harris, that he was under the impression that the hair on the lathe was not that of Mary Phagan, and thus tending to show that the crime was not committed on the floor of Frank's office. While defense made the subject an extraordinary for a new trial, it is well known that it is almost a practical impossibility to have a verdict set aside by this procedure.[176]
    The commutation was headline news. Atlanta Mayor Jimmy Woodward remarked that "The larger part of the population believes Frank guilty and that the commutation was a mistake."[177] In response, Slaton invited the press to his home that afternoon, telling them:
    All I ask is that the people of Georgia read my statement and consider calmly the reasons I have given for commuting Leo M. Frank's sentence. Feeling as I do about this case, I would be a murderer if I allowed that man to hang. I would rather be ploughing in a field than to feel for the rest of my life that I had that man's blood on my hands.[177]
    He also told reporters that he was certain that Conley was the actual murderer.[177] Slaton privately told friends that he would have issued a full pardon, if not for his belief that Frank would soon be able to prove his own innocence.[n 22]
    The public was outraged. A mob threatened to attack the governor at his home. A detachment of the Georgia National Guard, along with county policemen and a group of Slaton's friends who were sworn in as deputies, dispersed the mob.[179] Slaton had been a popular governor, but he and his wife left Georgia immediately thereafter.[180]
    For Frank's protection, he was taken to the Milledgeville State Penitentiary in the middle of the night before the commutation was announced. The penitentiary was "strongly garrisoned and newly bristling with arms" and separated from Marietta by 150 miles (240 km) of mostly unpaved road.[181] However, on July 17, The New York Times reported that fellow inmate William Creen tried to kill Frank by slashing his throat with a 7-inch (18 cm) butcher knife, severing his jugular vein. The attacker told the authorities he "wanted to keep the other inmates safe from mob violence, Frank's presence was a disgrace to the prison, and he was sure he would be pardoned if he killed Frank."[182]
    Antisemitism and media coverage Tom Watson, publisher of
    Watson's Magazine and
    The Jeffersonian, incited public opinion against Frank.
    The sensationalism in the press started before the trial and continued throughout the trial, the appeals process, the commutation decision, and beyond.[n 23] At the time, local papers were the dominant source of information, but they were not entirely anti-Frank. The Constitution alone assumed Frank's guilt, while both the Georgian and the Journal would later comment about the public hysteria in Atlanta during the trial, each suggesting the need to reexamine the evidence against the defendant.[184] On March 14, 1914, while the extraordinary motion hearing was pending, the Journal called for a new trial, saying that to execute Frank based on the atmosphere both within and outside the courtroom would "amount to judicial murder." Other newspapers in the state followed suit and many ministers spoke from the pulpit supporting a new trial. L. O. Bricker, the pastor of the church attended by Phagan's family, said that based on "the awful tension of public feeling, it was next to impossible for a jury of our fellow human beings to have granted him a fair, fearless and impartial trial."[185][n 24]
    On October 12, 1913, the New York Sun became the first major Northern paper to give a detailed account of the Frank trial. In discussing the charges of antisemitism in the trial, it described Atlanta as more liberal on the subject than any other Southern cities. It went on to say that antisemitism did arise during the trial as Atlantans reacted to statements attributed to Frank's Jewish supporters, who dismissed Phagan as "nothing but a factory girl". The paper said, "The anti-Semitic feeling was the natural result of the belief that the Jews had banded to free Frank, innocent or guilty. The supposed solidarity of the Jews for Frank, even if he was guilty, caused a Gentile solidarity against him."[187] On November 8, 1913, the executive committee of the American Jewish Committee, headed by Louis Marshall, addressed the Frank case. They did so following Judge Roan's reconsideration motion and motivated by the issues raised in the Sun. They chose not to take a public stance as a committee, instead deciding to raise funds individually to influence public opinion in favor of Frank.[187]
    Albert Lasker, a wealthy advertising magnate, responded to these calls to help Frank. Lasker contributed personal funds and arranged a public relations effort in support of Frank. In Atlanta, during the time of the extraordinary motion, Lasker coordinated Frank's meetings with the press and coined the slogan "The Truth Is on the March" to characterize the efforts of Frank's defense team. He persuaded prominent figures such as Thomas Edison, Henry Ford, and Jane Addams to make statements supporting Frank.[188] During the commutation hearing, Vice President Thomas R. Marshall weighed in, as did many leading magazine and newspaper editors, including Herbert Croly, editor of the New Republic; C.P.J. Mooney, editor of the Chicago Tribune; Mark Sullivan, editor of Collier's; R. E. Stafford, editor of the Daily Oklahoman; and D. D. Moore, editor of the New Orleans Times-Picayune.[189] Adolph Ochs, publisher of The New York Times, became involved about the same time as Lasker, organizing a prolonged campaign advocating for a new trial for Frank.[n 25] Lindemann argues that the publicity campaign had a wide national reach:
    Outside of Georgia, as the case gained national visibility, widespread sympathy for Frank was expressed. He received at final count close to a hundred thousand letters of sympathy in jail, and prominent figures throughout the country, including governors of other states, U.S. senators, clergymen, university presidents, and labor leaders, spoke up in his defense. Thousands of petitions in his favor, containing over a million signatures, flowed in.[191]
    Both Ochs and Lasker attempted to heed Louis Marshall's warnings about antagonizing the "sensitiveness of the southern people and engender the feeling that the north is criticizing the courts and the people of Georgia." Dinnerstein writes that these attempts failed, "because many Georgians interpreted every item favorable to Frank as a hostile act."[192]
    Tom Watson, editor of the Jeffersonian, had remained publicly silent during Frank's trial. Among Watson's political enemies was Senator Hoke Smith, former owner of The Atlanta Journal, which was still considered to be Smith's political instrument. When the Journal called for a reevaluation of the evidence against Frank, Watson, in the March 19, 1914 edition of his magazine, attacked Smith for trying "to bring the courts into disrepute, drag down the judges to the level of criminals, and destroy the confidence of the people in the orderly process of the law."[193] Watson also questioned whether Frank expected "extraordinary favors and immunities because of his race"[193] and questioned the wisdom of Jews to "risk the good name ... of the whole race" to save "the decadent offshoot of a great people."[194] Subsequent articles concentrated on the Frank case and became more and more impassioned in their attacks. C. Vann Woodward writes that Watson "pulled all the stops: Southern chivalry, sectional animus, race prejudice, class consciousness, agrarian resentment, state pride."[n 26]
    When describing the public reaction to Frank, historians mention the class and ethnic tensions in play while acknowledging the complexity of the case and the difficulty in gauging the importance of his Jewishness, class, and northern background. Historian John Higham writes that "economic resentment, frustrated progressivism, and race consciousness combined to produce a classic case of lynch law. ... Hatred of organized wealth reaching into Georgia from outside became a hatred of Jewish wealth."[n 27] Historian Nancy MacLean writes that some historians have argued that this was an American Dreyfus affair, which she said "[could] be explained only in light of the social tensions unleashed by the growth of industry and cities in the turn-of-the-century South. These circumstances made a Jewish employer a more fitting scapegoat for disgruntled whites than the other leading suspect in the case, a black worker."[197] Albert Lindemann said that Frank on trial found himself "in a position of much latent tension and symbolism." Stating that it is impossible to determine the extent to which antisemitism affected his image, he concluded that "[Frank was seen as] a representative of Yankee capitalism in a southern city, with row upon row of southern women, often the daughters and wives of ruined farmers, 'at his mercy' '' a rich, punctilious, northern Jew lording it over vulnerable and impoverished working women."[n 28]
    Abduction and lynching of Frank The June 21, 1915 commutation provoked Tom Watson into advocating Frank's lynching.[199] He wrote in The Jeffersonian and Watson's Magazine: "This country has nothing to fear from its rural communities. Lynch law is a good sign; it shows that a sense of justice lives among the people."[200][n 29] A group of prominent men organized themselves into the "Vigilance Committee" and openly planned to kidnap Frank from prison. They consisted of 28 men with various skills: an electrician was to cut the prison wires, car mechanics were to keep the cars running, and there was a locksmith, a telephone man, a medic, a hangman, and a lay preacher.[201] The ringleaders were well known locally but were not named publicly until June 2000, when a local librarian posted a list on the Web based on information compiled by Mary Phagan's great-niece, Mary Phagan Kean (b. 1953).[202] The list included Joseph Mackey Brown, former governor of Georgia; Eugene Herbert Clay, former mayor of Marietta and later president of the Georgia Senate; E. P. Dobbs, mayor of Marietta at the time; Moultrie McKinney Sessions, lawyer and banker; part of the Marietta delegation at Governor Slaton's clemency hearing;[203][n 30] several current and former Cobb County sheriffs; and other individuals of various professions.[204]
    On the afternoon of August 16, the eight cars of the lynch mob left Marietta separately for Milledgeville. They arrived at the prison at around 10:00 p.m., and the electrician cut the telephone wires, members of the group drained the gas from the prison's automobiles, handcuffed the warden, seized Frank, and drove away. The 175-mile (282 km) trip took about seven hours at a top speed of 18 miles per hour (29 km/h) through small towns on back roads. Lookouts in the towns telephoned ahead to the next town as soon as they saw the line of cars pass by. A site at Frey's Gin, two miles (3 km) east of Marietta, had been prepared, complete with a rope and table supplied by former Sheriff William Frey.[205] The New York Times reported Frank was handcuffed, his legs tied at the ankles, and that he was hanged from a branch of a tree at around 7:00 a.m., facing the direction of the house where Phagan had lived.[206]
    The Atlanta Journal wrote that a crowd of men, women, and children arrived on foot, in cars, and on horses, and that souvenir hunters cut away parts of his shirt sleeves.[207] According to The New York Times, one of the onlookers, Robert E. Lee Howell '' related to Clark Howell, editor of The Atlanta Constitution '' wanted to have the body cut into pieces and burned, and began to run around, screaming, whipping up the mob. Judge Newt Morris tried to restore order, and asked for a vote on whether the body should be returned to the parents intact; only Howell disagreed. When the body was cut down, Howell started stamping on Frank's face and chest; Morris quickly placed the body in a basket, and he and his driver John Stephens Wood drove it out of Marietta.[206][208]
    Leo Frank's lynching on the morning of August 17, 1915. Judge Morris, who organized the crowd after the lynching, is on the far right in a straw hat.
    [209][n 31]In Atlanta, thousands besieged the undertaker's parlor, demanding to see the body; after they began throwing bricks, they were allowed to file past the corpse.[206] Frank's body was then transported by rail on Southern Railway's train No. 36 from Atlanta to New York and buried in the Mount Carmel Cemetery in Glendale, Queens, New York on August 20, 1915.[210] (When Lucille Frank died, she was not buried with Leo; she was cremated, and eventually buried next to her parents' graves.)[211] The New York Times wrote that the vast majority of Cobb County believed he had received his "just deserts", and that the lynch mob had simply stepped in to uphold the law after Governor Slaton arbitrarily set it aside.[206] A Cobb County grand jury was convened to indict the lynchers; although they were well known locally, none were identified, and some of the lynchers may have served on the very same grand jury that was investigating them.[211][212] Nat Harris, the newly elected governor who succeeded Slaton, promised to punish the mob, issuing a $1,500 state reward for information. Despite this, Charles Willis Thompson of The New York Times said that the citizens of Marietta "would die rather than reveal their knowledge or even their suspicion [of the identities of the lynchers]", and the local Macon Telegraph said, "Doubtless they can be apprehended '' doubtful they will."[213]
    Several photographs were taken of the lynching, which were published and sold as postcards in local stores for 25 cents each; also sold were pieces of the rope, Frank's nightshirt, and branches from the tree. According to Elaine Marie Alphin, author of An Unspeakable Crime: The Prosecution and Persecution of Leo Frank, they were selling so fast that the police announced that sellers would require a city license.[214] In the postcards, members of the lynch mob or crowd can be seen posing in front of the body, one of them holding a portable camera. Historian Amy Louise Wood writes that local newspapers did not publish the photographs because it would have been too controversial, given that the lynch mob can be clearly seen and that the lynching was being condemned around the country. The Columbia State, which opposed the lynching, wrote: "The heroic Marietta lynchers are too modest to give their photographs to the newspapers." Wood also writes that a news film of the lynching that included the photographs was released, although it focused on the crowds without showing Frank's body; its showing was prevented by censorship boards around the U.S., though Wood says there is no evidence that it was stopped in Atlanta.[215][n 32]
    After the trial The lynching of Frank and its publicity temporarily halted lynchings.[216]
    Leo Frank's case was mentioned by Adolf Kraus when he announced the creation of the Anti-Defamation League in October 1913.[217][218] After Frank's lynching, around half of Georgia's 3,000 Jews left the state.[219] According to author Steve Oney, "What it did to Southern Jews can't be discounted ... It drove them into a state of denial about their Judaism. They became even more assimilated, anti-Israel, Episcopalian. The Temple did away with chupahs at weddings '' anything that would draw attention."[220] Many American Jews saw Frank as an American Alfred Dreyfus, like Frank, a victim of antisemitic persecution.[221]
    Two weeks after the lynching, in the September 2, 1915 issue of The Jeffersonian, Watson wrote, "the voice of the people is the voice of God",[222] capitalizing on his sensational coverage of the controversial trial. In 1914, when Watson began reporting his anti-Frank message, The Jeffersonian's circulation had been 25,000; by September 2, 1915, its circulation was 87,000.[223]
    The consensus of researchers on the subject is that Frank was wrongly convicted.[n 33][n 34] The Atlanta Constitution stated it was investigating the case again in the 1940s. A reporter who visited Frank's widow (she never remarried), Lucille, stated that she started crying when he discussed the case with her.[211]
    Jeffrey Melnick wrote, "There is near unanimity around the idea that Frank was most certainly innocent of the crime of murdering Mary Phagan."[226] Other historians and journalists have written that the trial was "a miscarriage of justice" and "a gross injustice",[n 35] "a mockery of justice",[n 36] that "there can be no doubt, of course, that ... [Frank was] innocent",[n 37] that "Leo Frank ... was unjustly and wrongly convicted of murder",[229] that he "was falsely convicted",[n 38] and that "the evidence against Frank was shaky, to say the least".[231] C. Vann Woodward, like many other authors,[n 39] believed that Conley was the actual murderer and was "implicated by evidence overwhelmingly more incriminating than any produced against Frank."[56]
    Critics cite a number of problems with the conviction. Local newspaper coverage, even before Frank was officially charged, was deemed to be inaccurate and prejudicial.[n 40] Some claimed that the prosecutor Hugh Dorsey was under pressure for a quick conviction because of recent unsolved murders and made a premature decision that Frank was guilty, a decision that his personal ambition would not allow him to reconsider.[n 41] Later analysis of evidence, primarily by Governor Slaton and Conley's attorney William Smith, seemed to exculpate Frank while implicating Conley.[n 42]
    Websites supporting the view that Frank was guilty of murdering Phagan emerged around the centennial of the Phagan murder in 2013.[244][245] The Anti-Defamation League issued a press release condemning what it called "misleading websites" from "anti-Semites ... to promote anti-Jewish views".[246]
    Applications for posthumous pardon Historical marker where Frank was hanged. The marker mentions Frank's posthumous pardon in 1986.
    First attempt In 1982, Alonzo Mann, who had been Frank's office boy at the time of Phagan's murder, told The Tennessean that he had seen Jim Conley alone shortly after noon carrying Phagan's body through the lobby toward the ladder descending into the basement.[247] Though Mann's testimony was not sufficient to settle the issue, it was the basis of an attempt by Charles Wittenstein, Southern counsel for the Anti-Defamation League, and Dale Schwartz, an Atlanta lawyer, to obtain a posthumous pardon for Frank from the Georgia State Board of Pardons and Paroles. The board also reviewed the files from Slaton's commutation decision.[248] It denied the pardon in 1983, hindered in its investigation by the lack of available records. It concluded that, "After exhaustive review and many hours of deliberation, it is impossible to decide conclusively the guilt or innocence of Leo M. Frank. For the board to grant a pardon, the innocence of the subject must be shown conclusively."[249] At the time, the lead editorial in The Atlanta Constitution began, "Leo Frank has been lynched a second time."[250]
    Second attempt Frank supporters submitted a second application for pardon, asking the state only to recognize its culpability over his death. The board granted the pardon in 1986.[249] It said:
    Without attempting to address the question of guilt or innocence, and in recognition of the State's failure to protect the person of Leo M. Frank and thereby preserve his opportunity for continued legal appeal of his conviction, and in recognition of the State's failure to bring his killers to justice, and as an effort to heal old wounds, the State Board of Pardons and Paroles, in compliance with its Constitutional and statutory authority, hereby grants to Leo M. Frank a Pardon.[251]
    In response to the pardon, an editorial by Fred Grimm in the Miami Herald said, "A salve for one of the South's most hateful, festering memories, was finally applied."[252]
    Historical marker In 2008, a state historical marker was erected by the Georgia Historical Society, the Jewish American Society for Historic Preservation, and Temple Kol Emeth, near the building at 1200 Roswell Road, Marietta where Frank was lynched.[253] In 2015, the Georgia Historical Society, the Atlanta History Center, and the Jewish American Society for Historic Preservation dedicated a Georgia Historical Society marker honoring Governor John M. Slaton at the Atlanta History Center.[254]
    Anti-lynching memorial National Anti-Lynching Memorial sited at the Leo Frank Memorial, Marietta, Ga.
    In 2018, The Jewish American Society for Historic Preservation, with support from the ADL, and Rabbi Steve Lebow of Temple Kol Emeth, placed the first national anti-lynching memorial at the Georgia Department of Transportation designated Leo Frank memorial site. The anti-lynching memorial was facilitated by a strong letter of support to the Georgia Department of Transportation by the late Congressman John Lewis when the Department turned down siting permission.[255] The text of the anti-lynching memorial text reads, "In Respectful Memory of the Thousands Across America, Denied Justice by Lynching; Victims of Hatred, Prejudice and Ignorance. Between 1880-1946, ~570 Georgians Were Lynched."[256][257]
    Conviction Integrity Unit In 2019, Fulton County District Attorney Paul Howard founded an eight-member panel called the Conviction Integrity Unit to investigate the cases of Wayne Williams and Frank.[258] The board will re-examine the cases and make recommendations to Howard on whether they should be re-adjudicated.
    In popular culture During the trial, the Atlanta musician and millworker Fiddlin' John Carson wrote and performed a murder ballad entitled "Little Mary Phagan". During the mill strikes of 1914, Carson sang "Little Mary Phagan" to crowds from the Fulton County courthouse steps. His daughter, Moonshine Kate, later recorded the song.[259] An unrecorded Carson song, "Dear Old Oak in Georgia", sentimentalizes the tree from which Leo Frank was hanged.[260]
    The Frank case has been the subject of several media adaptations. In 1921, African-American director Oscar Micheaux directed a silent race film entitled The Gunsaulus Mystery, followed by Murder in Harlem in 1935.[261] In 1937, Mervyn LeRoy directed They Won't Forget, based on the Ward Greene novel Death in The Deep South, which was in turn inspired by the Frank case.[262] An episode of the 1964 TV series Profiles in Courage dramatized Governor John M. Slaton's decision to commute Frank's sentence. The episode starred Walter Matthau as Governor Slaton and Michael Constantine as Tom Watson.[263] The 1988 TV miniseries The Murder of Mary Phagan was broadcast on NBC, starring Jack Lemmon as Gov. John Slaton and also featuring Kevin Spacey.[264] The 1998 Broadway musical Parade, based on the case, won two Tony Awards.[265] In 2009, Ben Loeterman directed the documentary film The People v. Leo Frank.[266]
    See also Blood libelBeilis affairAntisemitism in the United StatesLynching of Samuel BierfieldAbraham SuraskyReferences Informational notes
    ^ A 1900 Jewish newspaper in Atlanta wrote that "no one knows better than publishers of Jewish papers how widespread is this prejudice; but these publishers do not and will not tell what they know of the smooth talking Jew-haters, because it would widen the breech [sic] already existent."[6] ^ Dinnerstein wrote, "Men wore neither skullcaps nor prayer shawls, traditional Jewish holidays that the Orthodox celebrated on two days were observed by Marx and his followers for only one, and religious services were conducted on Sundays rather than on Saturdays."[7] ^ Lindemann writes, "As in the rest of the nation at this time, there were new sources of friction between Jews and Gentiles, and in truth the worries of the German-Jewish elite about the negative impact of the newly arriving eastern European Jews in the city were not without foundation."[8] ^ Levi Cohen, from her maternal lineage, had participated in founding the first synagogue in Atlanta.[17] ^ Oney writes, "Ordinarily, she was scheduled to work fifty-five hours. During the past six days, however, she'd been needed only for two abbreviated shifts. The sealed envelope awaiting her in her employer's office safe contained just $1.20."[29] ^ Lee said that these were his words in his evidence later at the trial.[35] ^ Oney writes: "Yet where Frank may have harbored a hidden agenda, Scott brought with him an undeniable conflict of interests...he was closely tied to the police. Private investigators operating in the city were required to submit duplicate copies of their reports to the department, even if the documents implicated a client. This much Scott would reveal to Frank. What he would not reveal, however, was that his allegiance to the force went deeper than the statutes required, that indeed, one of his best friends, someone with whom he often worked in tandem, was the individual who from the outset had believed Frank guilty: Detective John Black.[45] ^ For example: "The best evidence now available indicates that the real murderer of Mary Phagan was Jim Conley, perhaps because she, encountering him after she left Frank's office, refused to give him her pay envelope, and he, in a drunken stupor, killed her to get it."[55] "The city police, publicly committed to the theory of Frank's guilt, and hounded by the demand for a conviction, resorted to the basest methods in collecting evidence. A Negro suspect [Conley], later implicated by evidence overwhelmingly more incriminating than any produced against Frank, was thrust aside by the cry for the blood of the 'Jew Pervert.'"[56] ^ Lindemann indicates there was a developing stereotype of "wanton, young Jewish males who hungered for fair-haired Gentile women." A familiar stereotype in Europe, it reached Atlanta in the 1890s "with the arrival of eastern European Jews." "Fear of Jewish sexuality may have had a special explosiveness in Atlanta at this time because it could easily connect to a central myth, or cultural theme, in the South '' that of the pure, virtuous, yet vulnerable White woman."[92] ^ Both the motorman, W. M. Matthews, and the conductor, W. T. Hollis, testified that Phagan got off the trolley at 12:10. In addition, they both testified that Epps was not on the trolley. Epps said at trial that Phagan got off the trolley at 12:07. From the stop where Phagan exited the trolley, according to Atlanta police officer John N. Starnes, "It takes not over three minutes to walk from Marietta Street, at the corner of Forsyth, across the viaduct, and through Forsyth Street, down to the factory."[104] ^ Frank stated in his initial police deposition that Phagan "came in between 12:05 and 12:10, to get her pay envelope".[105] ^ In its motion for a mistrial, the defense presented examples of the crowd's behavior to the court.[118] ^ This was challenged as a violation of Frank's due process rights in Frank's appeal to the Georgia Supreme Court in November 1914,[119] and in his U.S. Supreme Court appeal, Frank v. Mangum (1915).[120] ^ The Atlanta Journal reported the next day that deliberation took less than two hours; at the first ballot one juror was undecided, but within two hours, the second vote was unanimous.[121] ^ Dinnerstein defines an "extraordinary motion" as a motion based on new information not available at the time of the trial. It was needed to continue through the appeals process because the ordinary procedures had been exhausted.[136] ^ The Roan letter was addressed to the pardons board but received by Rosser. It said, "I recommend executive clemency in the case of Leo. M. Frank. I wish today to recommend to you and the Governor to commute Frank's sentence to life imprisonment."[156] ^ Roan further wrote, "After many months of continued deliberation, I am still uncertain of Frank's guilt. The state of uncertainty is largely due to the character of the negro Conley's testimony, by which the verdict was evidently reached ... The execution of any person whose guilt has not been satisfactorily proved to the constituted authorities is too horrible to contemplate." Roan indicated a willingness to meet with the governor and the parole board, but died before he could do so.[157] ^ "Thus, Conley's elaborate testimony, which included using the elevator with Frank to take the body to the basement, was put into question."[162] ^ "Where in the past, Frank's lawyers had caught Conley in little lies, ones he blithely admitted, here, for the first time in an official forum, they had apparently caught him in a big lie, one that cast doubt on his entire testimony."[163] ^ "If one accepted the fact that the girl's body did not reach the basement via the elevator, then Conley's whole narrative fell apart, the Governor concluded."[160] ^ Quoting from Slaton's statement, "In addition, there was found in the elevator shaft at 3 o'clock Sunday morning, the parasol, which was unhurt, and a ball of cord which had not been mashed."[165] ^ "Privately, Slaton confided to friends that he believed Frank innocent and would have granted a full pardon if he were not convinced that in a short while the truth would come out and then 'the very men who were clamoring for Frank's life would be demanding a pardon for him.' The Governor knew certain 'facts' about the case, which he did not reveal at the time, corroborating the defense's theory of the way Conley had murdered Mary Phagan."[178] ^ The Georgian offered a $500 reward for information on the case, and produced several extras during the trial. Speaking on the impact of the reward money, Oney wrote, "In effect, the bounty served to deputize the entire city, and by late Monday, the officers working the case would be spending more time following dubious tips than developing legitimate leads."[183] ^ Bricker wrote in 1943, "My feelings, upon the arrest of the old negro nightwatchman, were to the effect that this one old negro would be poor atonement for the life of this innocent girl. But, when on the next day, the police arrested a Jew, and a Yankee Jew at that, all of the inborn prejudice against Jews rose up in a feeling of satisfaction, that here would be a victim worthy to pay for the crime."[186] ^ Oney writes, "December 1914 found the New York Times in the midst of an all-out drive of the sort it had never undertaken before. Only three days during the month did the paper not publish a major article on the Frank case. Some of its stories, particularly if there was a new development, strove for balance, but by and large, Ochs's sheet was more interested in disseminating propaganda than in practicing journalism."[190] ^ Among Watson's comments: "Here we have the typical young libertine Jew who is dreaded and detested by the city authorities of the North for the very reason that Jews of this type have an utter contempt for law, and a ravenous appetite for the forbidden fruit '' a lustful eagerness enhanced by the racial novelty of the girl of the uncircumcized."[195] ^ Higham places the incidents in Atlanta within the context of a wider national trend. The failure of progressives to solve national and international problems led to nativist displays "of hysteria and violence that had been rare or nonexistent since the 1890s."[196] ^ Lindemann wrote, "Even many Jews in Atlanta long remained doubtful about the importance of Frank's Jewishness in his arrest and conviction. They could hardly ignore the much-heightened tensions between Jew and non-Jew in the city as a result of the trial, as a result particularly of the widespread belief, after Frank's conviction, that the Jews were trying, through devious means, to arrange that a convicted murderer be freed."[198] ^ About two dozen people were lynched each year in Georgia; in 1915 the number was 22; see Oney p. 122. ^ For the list of alleged lynchers, see Donald E. Wilkes Jr. (May 5, 2004). "Steve Oney's List of the Leo Frank Lynchers". ^ The New York Times wrote at the time that, after the lynching, it was Morris who got the crowd under control; see "Grim Tragedy in Woods", The New York Times, August 19, 1915. Years later, he was identified as one of the ringleaders; see Alphin p. 117. ^ Wood writes that Kenneth Rogers, the head of photography at The Atlanta Constitution and The Atlanta Journal-Constitution between 1924 and 1972, had access to at least one of the photographs, leaving it in the Kenneth Rogers Papers at the Atlanta History Center. She assumes he got it from the newspapers' archives, though the newspapers did not publish it; they accompanied their stories instead with images of the woods near the hanging, and of the crowds who viewed Frank's body later in the funeral parlor; see Wood, pp. 106, 288, footnote 59. See Alphin p. 122 for details of the souvenir sales. ^ "The modern historical consensus, as exemplified in the Dinnerstein book, is that ... Leo Frank was an innocent man convicted at an unfair trial."[224] ^ "The consensus of historians is that the Frank case was a miscarriage of justice."[225] ^ Woodward wrote, "Outside the state the conviction was general that Frank was the victim of a gross injustice, if not completely innocent. He presented his own case so eloquently and so ingenuously, and the circumstance of the trial were such a glaring indication of a miscarriage of justice, that thousands of people enlisted in his cause."[227] ^ He wrote: "Ignoring all other evidence, especially that associated with a black janitor named Jim Conley, and focusing exclusively on Frank, prosecutors brought Leo Frank to trial in what can only be termed a mockery of justice."[228] ^ Watson '' In reviewing Lindemann's book he wrote, "Turning to his main theme, Lindemann provides a succinct and very scholarly account of the three cases he compares, Dreyfus, Beilis (in which a Jew was tried in Kiev in 1913), and Frank (in which a Jew was convicted of rape and murder in Atlanta, Georgia, in 1915). There can be no doubt, of course, that all three were innocent." ^ "That case, in which a Jewish manufacturer in Atlanta was falsely convicted of murdering a thirteen-year-old girl who worked for him, then lynched in 1915, reeked of anti-Semitism and was devastating to southern Jewry."[230] ^ Dan Carter, in a review of Oney's work, places his work within the context of previous works. "On the central issue he agrees with earlier researchers: Leo Frank did not murder Mary Phagan, and the evidence strongly suggests that Jim Conley did so." Other quotes include: "The best evidence now available indicates that the real murderer of Mary Phagan was Jim Conley, perhaps because she, encountering him after she left Frank's office, refused to give him her pay envelope, and he, in a drunken stupor, killed her to get it.";[232] "It seems certain, however, that the actual killer was James Conley ...";[233] "Conley was the likely solo killer";[234] "Many people, then and later, were of the opinion that Conley not only lied at the trial but that he himself was probably the murderer.";[235] "The much more concrete evidence against Conley was thrust aside as the public cried for the blood of the 'Jew pervert'."[236] ^ Early newspaper charges included a charge by a madam, Nina Formby, that Frank wanted her assistance in keeping a young girl on the night of the murder.[237] A private detective claimed to have seen Frank rendezvousing with a young girl in a wooded area in 1912.[238] Early reports of blood and hair samples in the office next to Frank's turned out to be suspect.[239] ^ It is alleged that Dorsey "suppressed evidence" favorable to Frank, intimidated and bribed witnesses, "drilled Conley in false testimony", "may have lacked the moral strength to back down" as contradictory evidence was uncovered, and feared that if he reversed himself he would have "ruined his career" and be accused of "having sold out to the Jews."[240] Dinnerstein writes on p. 19, "He had recently prosecuted two important accused murderers and had failed each time to convict them." A local newspaper said another failure would be "the end of Mr. Dorsey as solicitor."[241]"Among reporters, the consensus was that the Phagan prosecution represented nothing less than a last chance for him."[242] ^ Physical evidence suggested the murder occurred in the basement rather than upstairs (as claimed by Conley). Smith's analysis of the murder notes convinced him Conley composed them independently and were planted by Phagan's body as if she wrote them. Oney writes, "Slaton offered a legal rationale for commuting Frank's sentence to life imprisonment, asserting that contrary to the claims of those who opposed the action, there was sufficient new evidence not introduced at the trial ...".[243] Citations
    ^ "100 Years Since the Death of Leo Frank | Britannica". www.britannica.com. ^ Dinnerstein 1987, pp. 7''8. ^ MacLean p. 921. ^ Dinnerstein 1987, p. 10. ^ Lindemann p. 231. ^ Dinnerstein 1994, pp. 177''180. ^ a b Dinnerstein 1994, p. 181. ^ Lindemann p. 231. ^ Oney p. 7. ^ Dinnerstein 1987, p. 9. ^ Frey p. 19. ^ a b Oney p. 10. ^ Dinnerstein 1987, p. 5. ^ a b Frey p. 20. ^ Lindemann p. 251. ^ Oney p. 80. ^ The Selig Company Building '' Pioneer Neon Company. Marietta Street ARTery Association. ^ Oney p. 84. ^ Oney pp. 85, 483. ^ Oney p. 11. ^ Lawson pp. 211, 250. ^ Phagan Kean p. 111. ^ Alphin p. 26. ^ R. Barri Flowers (October 6, 2013). Murder at the Pencil Factory: The Killing of Mary Phagan 100 Years Later. True Crime. p. 8. ^ Phagan Kean p. 11. ^ a b Phagan Kean p. 14. ^ Phagan Kean pp. 12, 14. ^ a b c Oney p. 5. ^ a b Oney pp. 8''9. ^ Frey p. 5. ^ Oney p. 21. ^ Oney pp. 18''19. ^ Oney pp. 20''22. ^ Oney pp. 30''31. ^ Golden p. 162 ^ Golden pp. 19, 102. ^ Oney pp. 20''21, 379. ^ Oney pp. 61''62. ^ Oney pp. 46''47. ^ Oney p. 31. ^ Phagan Kean p. 76. ^ Oney pp. 27''32. ^ Oney pp. 48''51. ^ Oney p. 62. ^ Oney p. 62''63. ^ Oney p. 65. ^ Oney pp. 65''66. ^ Oney p. 61. ^ Oney pp. 63''64. ^ Oney pp. 69''70. ^ Dinnerstein 1987, pp. 16''17. ^ Oney p. 102. ^ Oney p. 112. ^ Oney p. 111. ^ Lindemann p. 254. ^ a b Woodward p. 435. ^ Oney p. 118. ^ Oney pp. 128''129. ^ Oney pp. 129''132. ^ Oney pp. 133''134. ^ a b Oney pp. 134''136. ^ Oney p. 3. ^ Oney pp. 137''138. ^ Oney p. 138. ^ Dinnerstein 1987, p. 24. ^ Oney pp. 139''140. ^ Oney p. 242. ^ Oney pp. 147''148. ^ Frey p. 132. ^ Saturday, July 12, 1913: "Final and Home Editions, respectively" "Says Women Heard Conley Confession". ^ Oney pp. 36, 60. ^ Dinnerstein 1987, p. 15. ^ Dinnerstein 1987, p. 14. ^ Oney pp. 74, 87''90. ^ Lindemann p. 249. ^ Dinnerstein 1987, p. 19. ^ Oney pp. 115''116, 236. ^ Oney pp. 178''188. ^ Leonard S. Roan, 1913''1914. Archived October 17, 2017, at the Wayback Machine Court of Appeals of the State of Georgia. ^ Oney p. 191. ^ Knight p. 189. ^ a b Melnick p. 41. ^ Gerald Ziedenberg (2012). Epic Trials in Jewish History. AuthorHouse. p. 59. ISBN 978-1-4772-7060-8. ^ a b Dinnerstein 1987, pp. 37, 58. ^ Oney p. 233. ^ Oney pp. 208''209, 231''232. ^ Golden pp. 118''139. ^ Phagan Kean p. 105. ^ Oney p. 205. ^ Oney pp. 197, 256, 264, 273. ^ Oney pp. 179, 225, 228. ^ Lindemann p. 239. ^ Oney pp. 241''243. ^ Dinnerstein 1987, pp. 40''41. ^ Dinnerstein 1987, pp. 45''47, 57. ^ Oney pp. 245''247, 252''253, 258''259, 265''266, 279. ^ Oney pp. 75''76. ^ Oney pp. 273, 280. ^ Oney pp. 295''296. ^ Oney pp. 309''311. ^ Oney p. 115. ^ Dinnerstein 1987, pp. 37''40. ^ Oney pp. 50, 100. ^ Dinnerstein 1987, p. 48; Oney pp. 50, 197, 266. ^ Lawson p. 242. ^ Oney pp. 278, 285. ^ Oney pp. 87, 285. ^ Lawson p. 226. ^ Dinnerstein 1987, p. 49. ^ Oney p. 359. ^ Oney p. 329. ^ Lawson pp. 182''183. ^ Dinnerstein 1987, p. 2. ^ Phagan Kean p. 70. ^ Oney pp. 47''48. ^ Oney pp. 50''51. ^ Phagan Kean p. 160. ^ Lawson pp. 398''399. ^ Lawson p. 410, fn. 2. ^ "Appellate Decisions in the Leo Frank Case". University of Missouri''Kansas City School of Law. Archived from the original on January 14, 2017 . Retrieved October 1, 2016 . ^ Lawson p. 407. ^ "Finds Mob Frenzy Convicted Frank." The New York Times, December 14, 1914. ^ Lawson p. 409. ^ Oney pp. 352''353. ^ Dinnerstein 1987, p. 77. ^ Dinnerstein 1987, pp. 77''78. ^ Oney p. 364. ^ Linder, Douglas. "New Evidence and Appeals," in The Trial of Leo Frank: An Account. ^ Dinnerstein 1987, p. 79. ^ Friedman pp. 1477''80 with footnotes 39''52. ^ Dinnerstein 1987, pp. 81, 163''165. ^ a b Oney pp. 369''370. ^ a b Dinnerstein 1987, pp. 81''82. ^ Oney p. 370. ^ Oney p. 377. ^ Dinnerstein 1987, p. 201 (fn 12). ^ Oney p. 395. ^ Dinnerstein 1987, pp. 84''90, 102''105. ^ Oney pp. 371''373, 378''380, 385''387, 389''390. ^ Dinnerstein 1987, pp. 90''91. ^ Oney pp. 403''416. ^ Oney pp. 416''417. ^ Oney p. 418. ^ Dinnerstein 1987, pp. 107''108. ^ Oney p. 446. ^ Freedman p. 56. ^ Dinnerstein 1987, p. 109. ^ Dinnerstein 1987, p. 110. ^ Oney p. 468. ^ Oney pp. 470, 473, 480''488. ^ Dinnerstein 1987, pp. 123''124. ^ Lindemann p. 270. ^ Oney pp. 489''499. ^ "Begin Last Frank Plea to Governor", The New York Times, June 13, 1915. ^ Dinnerstein 1987, p. 125. ^ Golden p. 262. ^ Oney pp. 469''479. ^ Woodward p. 440. ^ Oney pp. 499''500. ^ a b Dinnerstein 1987, p. 127. ^ Oney pp. 500''501. ^ Lindemann p. 269. ^ Oney p. 489. ^ Oney pp. 495''496, 501. ^ Golden pp. 266''267. ^ Oney p. 482. ^ Oney p. 483. ^ Oney p. 433. ^ Dinnerstein 1987, p. 128. ^ Golden pp. 267''269. ^ Oney p. 501. ^ Golden pp. 268''269. ^ Dinnerstein 1987, pp. 127''128. ^ Golden p. 348. ^ Oney p. 502. ^ Golden p. 352. ^ a b c Oney p. 503. ^ Dinnerstein 1987, pp. 129, 169''171. ^ John M. Slaton (1866''1955) Archived October 7, 2012, at the Wayback Machine, The New Georgia Encyclopedia. ^ "Slaton Here; Glad He Saved Frank", The New York Times, June 30, 1915. ^ Oney 2003, pp. 513''514. ^ For stories about the attack, see:"Leo Frank's Throat Cut by Convict; Famous Prisoner Near Death", The New York Times, July 18, 1915."Frank Survives Assassin's Knife", The New York Times, July 19, 1915."Frank's Assailant Before Governor", The New York Times, July 25, 1915."Frank's Head in Braces; Excessive Heat Delaying Recovery from Wound in Throat", The New York Times, August 2, 1915. ^ Oney p. 37. ^ Dinnerstein 1987, p. 31. ^ Oney pp. 381''382. ^ Dinnerstein 1987, p. 33. ^ a b Oney p. 366. ^ Oney pp. 367, 377''378, 388. ^ Oney p. 491. ^ Oney p. 457. ^ Albert S. Lindemann, Esau's tears : modern anti-semitism and the rise of the Jews, 1870-1933 (Cambridge University Press, 1997) p. 382. ^ Dinnerstein 1987, pp. 91''92. ^ a b Dinnerstein 1987, p. 97. ^ Oney p. 383. ^ Woodward pp. 437''439. ^ Higham p. 185. ^ MacLean p. 918. ^ Lindemann pp. 238''239. ^ Woodward p. 439. ^ Woodward p. 432. ^ Phagan Kean p. 223. ^ Emory University, Leo Frank Collection, Mary Phagan Kean's list of vigilance committee's members, Box 1, Folder 14. ^ Sawyer, Kathy (June 20, 2000). "A Lynching, a List and Reopened Wounds; Jewish Businessman's Murder Still Haunts Georgia Town". Washington Post. Archived from the original on December 15, 2017 . Retrieved August 13, 2016 . ^ Oney p. 527. ^ "Parties Unknown.", Boston Evening Transcript, August 24, 1915. ^ a b c d "Grim Tragedy in Woods". The New York Times, August 19, 1915. ^ "Leo Frank Forcibly Taken From Prison; He Is Hanged To A Tree Near Marietta; His Body Has Been Brought To Atlanta". The Atlanta Journal, August 17, 1915. In Beller, Miles; Cray, Ed; Kotler, Jonathan (eds.). American Datelines, p. 153. ^ For Slaton's role, see Dinnerstein 1987, pp. 123''134. Also see "GEORGIA: A Political Suicide". Time, January 24, 1955. (subscription required) For details of the lynching, see Coleman p. 292.Also see "Body Of Frank Is Found Dangling From A Tree Near The Phagan Home". Associated Press, August 17, 1915.For the souvenirs and violence, see Alphin p. 122. ^ "The lynching of Leo Frank". leofranklynchers.com. Archived from the original on August 15, 2000 . Retrieved August 22, 2010 . ^ Oney pp. 573''576. ^ a b c "Leo may have been killed, but she served a life sentence..." History Atlanta. February 8, 2020 . Retrieved June 25, 2020 . ^ Alphin p. 123. ^ Oney pp. 582''583. ^ Alphin p. 122. ^ Wood pp. 77, 106, 148. ^ "The Crime in Florida". The Gazette Times. Pittsburgh. August 21, 1916. p. 4. ^ Moore p. 108. ^ Chanes p. 105. ^ Theoharis and Cox p. 45. ^ Yarrow, Allison (May 13, 2009). "The People Revisit Leo Frank". Forward. ^ Oney p. 578. ^ Woodward p. 446. ^ Woodward p. 442. ^ Wilkes, Donald E Jr., Flagpole Magazine, "POLITICS, PREJUDICE, AND PERJURY", p. 9 (March 1, 2000). ^ Ravitz, Jessica (November 2, 2009). "Murder case, Leo Frank lynching". Cable News Network. Turner Broadcasting System, Inc. ^ Melnick p. 7. ^ Woodward p. 346. ^ Eakin p. 96. ^ Sorin, Gerald. AJS Review, Vol. 20, No. 2 (1995), pp. 441''447. ^ Scholnick, Myron L., The Journal of Southern History, Vol. 61, No. 4 (November 1995), pp. 860''861. ^ Friedman p. 1254. ^ Lindemann p. 254. ^ Dershowitz, Alan M. "America on Trial: Inside the Legal Battles That Transformed Our Nation" p. vii. ^ Arneson, Eric. "A Deadly Case of Southern Injustice". ^ Henig p. 167. ^ Moseley p. 44. ^ Moseley pp. 43''44. ^ Oney pp. 114''115. ^ Lindemann pp. 242''243. ^ Lindemann pp. 250, 252. ^ Dinnerstein 1987, pp. 19, 151, 154''155. ^ Oney pp. 94''95. ^ Oney pp. 427''455, 498''502. ^ "The Leo Frank Case Research Library". Leofrank.org. ^ "History". The American Mercury. Online version of a magazine founded by H. L. Mencken in 1924. Most articles in the History category are on the topic of Leo Frank. ^ "ADL: Anti-Semitism Around Leo Frank Case Flourishes on 100th Anniversary". Anti-Defamation League . Retrieved August 31, 2015 . ^ The Tennessean special news section, p. 15, in Dinnerstein 1987. ^ Oney p. 684. ^ a b Oney pp. 647''648. ^ Dinnerstein, Leonard (October 1996). "The Fate Of Leo Frank", American Heritage, Vol. 47, Issue 6. Retrieved May 15, 2011. ^ Dinnerstein, Leonard (May 14, 2003). "Leo Frank Case". New Georgia Encyclopedia. ^ Grimm, Fred (March 12, 1986). "Lynch-Mob Victim is Pardoned; Case Was Symbol of Anti-Semitism". The Miami Herald . Retrieved July 13, 2016 . ^ Leo Frank Lynching: Georgia Historical Society, The Georgia Historical Society. Retrieved October 28, 2014. ^ "Historical Marker Dedication: Gov. John M. Slaton (1866''1955)". Georgia Historical Society. June 17, 2015 . Retrieved July 27, 2015 . ^ "John Lewis, Leo Frank, and the National Anti-Lynching Memorial". ^ "The Story of Leo Frank Lives On". August 26, 2020. ^ Brasch, Ben. "Cobb's Leo Frank memorial site is getting a national lynching marker". The Atlanta Journal-Constitution. ^ Boone, Christian (May 7, 2019). "Fulton DA review board to re-examine Wayne Williams, Leo Frank cases". Atlanta Journal-Constitution . Retrieved May 18, 2019 . ^ "Little Mary Phagan". University of North Carolina . Retrieved July 26, 2015 . ^ Melnick p. 18. ^ " Matthew Bernstein. "Oscar Micheaux and Leo Frank: Cinematic Justice Across the Color Line". Film Quarterly. Summer 2004. Archived from the original on April 13, 2010. ^ Frank S. Nugent (July 15, 1937). "They Won't Forget (1937)". The New York Times. ^ "Profiles in Courage: Governor John M. Slaton (TV)". The Paley Center for Media . Retrieved December 11, 2016 . ^ "The Murder of Mary Phagan". Rotten Tomatoes . Retrieved December 11, 2016 . ^ "Winners: The American Theatre Wing's Tony Awards". Tony Award Productions . Retrieved May 18, 2019 . ^ "Leo Frank Film". Ben Loeterman Productions, Inc . Retrieved January 4, 2015 . Bibliography
    Alphin, Elaine Marie. An Unspeakable Crime: The Prosecution and Persecution of Leo Frank. Carolrhoda Books, 2010. Google Books abridged version. Retrieved June 10, 2011. ISBN 978-0-8225-8944-0.Carter, Dan. "And the Dead Shall Rise: The Murder of Mary Phagan and the Lynching of Leo Frank". Journal of Southern History, Vol. 71, Issue 2 (May 2005), p. 491. DOI: 10.2307/27648797.Chanes, Jerome. "Who Does What?". In Maisel, Louis; Forman, Ira; Altschiller, Donald; Bassett, Charles. Jews in American Politics: Essays. Rowman & Littlefield, 2001. p. 105. ISBN 978-0-7425-0181-2.Coleman, Kenneth. A History of Georgia. University of Georgia Press, 1991. ISBN 978-0-8203-1269-9.Dinnerstein, Leonard. Antisemitism in America. Oxford University Press, 1994. Google Books abridged version. Retrieved June 5, 2016. ISBN 978-0-19-503780-7.Dinnerstein, Leonard. The Leo Frank Case. University of Georgia Press, 1987. ISBN 978-0-8203-3179-9.Eakin, Frank. What Price Prejudice?: Christian Antisemitism in America. Paulist Press, 1998. ISBN 978-0-8091-3822-7.Freedman, Eric. Habeas Corpus: Rethinking the Great Writ of Liberty. New York University Press, 2003. Retrieved August 23, 2014. ISBN 978-0-8147-2718-8.Frey, Robert Seitz; Thompson-Frey, Nancy. The Silent and the Damned: The Murder of Mary Phagan and the Lynching of Leo Frank. New York, New York: Cooper Square Press (of Rowman & Littlefield), 2002. Google Books abridged version. Retrieved June 17, 2015. ISBN 978-0-8154-1188-8.Friedman, Lawrence M. "Front Page: Notes on the Nature and Significance of Headline Trials". St. Louis University Law Journal, Vol. 55, Issue 4 (Summer 2011), pp. 1243''1284.Golden, Harry. A Little Girl is Dead. World Publishing Company, 1965. Retrieved June 25, 2011. (published in Great Britain as The Lynching of Leo Frank)Henig, Gerald. "'He Did Not Have a Fair Trial': California Progressives React to the Leo Frank Case". California History, Vol. 58, No. 2 (Summer 1979), pp. 166''178. DOI: 10.2307/25157909.Higham, John. Strangers in the Land: Patterns of American Nativism, 1860''1925. Rutgers University Press, 1988. ISBN 978-0-8135-1308-9.Knight, Alfred H. The Life of the Law. Oxford University Press, 1996. Google Books abridged version. ISBN 978-0-19-512239-8.Kranson, Rachel. "Rethinking the Historiography of American Antisemitism in the Wake of the Pittsburgh Shooting." American Jewish History 105.1 (2021): 247-253. summaryLawson, John Davison (ed.). American State Trials Volume X (1918), contains the abridged trial testimony and closing arguments starting on p. 182. Retrieved August 23, 2010.Lindemann, Albert S. The Jew Accused: Three Anti-Semitic Affairs (Dreyfus, Beilis, Frank), 1894''1915. Cambridge University Press, 1991. Google Books abridged version. Retrieved June 11, 2011. ISBN 978-0-521-40302-3.MacLean, Nancy. "The Leo Frank Case Reconsidered: Gender and Sexual Politics in the Making of Reactionary Populism". The Journal of American History, Vol. 78, No. 3 (December 1991), pp. 917''948. DOI: 10.2307/2078796.Melnick, Jeffrey Paul. Black-Jewish Relations on Trial: Leo Frank and Jim Conley in the New South. University Press of Mississippi, 2000. Google Books abridged version. ISBN 978-1-60473-595-6.Moore, Deborah. B'nai B'rith and the Challenge of Ethnic Leadership. State University of New York Press, 1981. ISBN 978-0-87395-480-8.Moseley, Clement Charlton. "The Case of Leo M. Frank, 1913''1915". The Georgia Historical Quarterly, Vol. 51, No. 1 (March 1967), pp. 42''62. (subscription required) Oney, Steve. And the Dead Shall Rise: The Murder of Mary Phagan and the Lynching of Leo Frank. Pantheon Books, 2003. ISBN 978-0-679-76423-6.Phagan Kean, Mary. The Murder of Little Mary Phagan. Horizon Press, 1987. ISBN 978-0-88282-039-2.Samuels, Charles; Samuels, Louise Night Fell on Georgia, Dell, 1956Theoharis, Athan; Cox, John Stuart. The Boss: J. Edgar Hoover and the Great American Inquisition. Temple University Press, 1988. ISBN 978-0-7881-5839-1.Watson, D. R. "Reviewed Works: Dreyfus: A Family Affair, 1789''1945 by Michael Burns; The Jew Accused: Three Anti-Semitic Affairs (Dreyfus, Beilis, Frank), 1894''1915 by Albert S. Lindemann". The Journal of Modern History, Vol. 66, No. 2 (June 1994), pp. 393''395. DOI: 10.1086/244854.Wood, Amy Louise. Lynching and Spectacle. The University of North Carolina Press, 2009. ISBN 978-0-8078-3254-7.Woodward, Comer Vann. Tom Watson: Agrarian Rebel. New York: Oxford University Press, 1963. Google Books abridged version.External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to
    Leo Frank
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    Historical marker at the Old Marietta City Cemetery, Marietta, GeorgiaLeo Frank Clemency File Archived May 17, 2016, at the Wayback Machine from the Georgia ArchivesLeo Frank Exhibit from the Digital Library of GeorgiaLeo Frank Papers from the Digital Library of GeorgiaLeo M. Frank v. C. Wheeler Mangum, Sheriff of Fulton County, Georgia Writ of habeas corpus filed by FrankMultiple victims
    Death of Joseph Smith (Joseph Smith, Hyrum Smith) (1844)Marais des Cygnes, KS, massacre (1858)Great Hanging at Gainesville, TX (1862)New York City draft riots (1863)Detroit race riot (1863)? Lachenais and four others (1863)Fort Pillow, TN, massacre (1864)Plummer Gang (1864)Memphis massacre (1866)Gallatin County, KY, race riot (1866)New Orleans massacre of 1866Reno Brothers Gang (1868)Camilla, GA, massacre (1868)Steve Long and two half-brothers (1868)Pulaski, TN, riot (1868)Samuel Bierfield and Lawrence Bowman (1868)Opelousas, LA, massacre (1868)Bear River City riot (1868)Chinese massacre of 1871Meridian, MS, race riot (1871)Colfax, LA, massacre (1873)Election riot of 1874 (AL)Juan, Antonio, and Marcelo Moya (1874)Benjamin and Mollie French (1876)Ellenton, SC, riot (1876)Hamburg, SC, massacre (1876)Thibodeax, LA, massacre (1878)Nevlin Porter and Johnson Spencer (1879)New Orleans 1891 lynchings (1891)Ruggles Brothers (CA) (1892)Thomas Moss, Henry Stewart, Calvin McDowell (TN) (1892)Porter and Spencer (MS) (1897)Phoenix, SC, election riot (1898)Wilmington, NC, insurrection (1898)Julia and Frazier Baker (1898)Pana, IL, riot (1899)Watkinsville lynching (1905)Atlanta race riot (1906)Kemper County, MS (1906)Walker family (1908)Springfield race riot of 1908Slocum, TX, massacre (1910)Laura and L.D. Nelson (1911)Harris County, GA, lynchings (1912)Forsyth County, GA (1912)Newberry, FL, lynchings (1916)East St. Louis, IL, riots (1917)Lynching rampage in Brooks County, GA (1918)Jenkins County, GA, riot (1919)Longview, TX, race riot (1919)Elaine, AR, race riot (1919)Omaha race riot of 1919Knoxville riot of 1919Red Summer (1919)Duluth, MN, lynchings (1920)Ocoee, FL, massacre (1920)Tulsa race massacre (1921)Perry, FL, race riot (1922)Rosewood, FL, massacre (1923)Jim and Mark Fox (1927)Thomas Shipp and Abram Smith (1930)Tate County, MS (1932)Thomas Harold Thurmond and John M. Holmes (1933)Roosevelt Townes and Robert McDaniels (1937)Beaumont, TX, Race Riot (1943)O'Day Short, wife, and two children (1945)Moore's Ford, GA, lynchings (1946)Harry and Harriette Moore (1952)Anniston, AL (1961)Freedom Summer Murders (James Chaney, Andrew Goodman, Michael Schwerner) (1964)Henry Hezekiah Dee and Charles Eddie Moore (1964)
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  03. Kim Iversen What is MASS FORMATION PSYCHOSIS Is The Public Being Gaslit 2.mp3
  04. Neely Fuller Jr- white privilege and white supremacy 1.mp3
  05. Neely Fuller Jr- white privilege and white supremacy 2.mp3
  06. Privilege Meaning - Privileged Examples - Privilege Definition - English Vocabulary 1.mp3
  07. Privilege Meaning - Privileged Examples - Privilege Definition - English Vocabulary 2.mp3
  08. Jordan Maxwell -Maritime Law Rules the World Commerce and Courts 1.mp3
  08a. Jordan Maxwell -Maritime Law Rules the World Commerce and Courts 2.mp3
  09. Neely Fuller Jr- white privilege and white supremacy 3.mp3
  10. Neely Fuller Jr- white privilege and white supremacy 4.mp3
  11. Substance abuse during the COVID-19 pandemic KVUE.mp3
  12. Neely Fuller Jr- Chaos, Confusion, Contradictions 1.mp3
  13. Neely Fuller Jr- Chaos, Confusion, Contradictions 2.mp3
  14. Malcolm X Media Manipulation 1.mp3
  15. Malcolm X Media Manipulation 2.mp3
  16. Malcolm X Media Manipulation 3.mp3
  18. Kim Iversen What is MASS FORMATION PSYCHOSIS Is The Public Being Gaslit 3.mp3
  19. Group Think and the Challenger Explosion 1.mp3
  20. Group Think and the Challenger Explosion 2.mp3
  21. Exposing the origins of the “Mental Health” field 👀🧠 - #RizzaIslam #IntellectualXtremist #Djtwitch 1.mp3
  22. TBC88 - 1957 SPECIAL REPORT LITTLE ROCK 1.mp3
  23. TBC88 - 1957 SPECIAL REPORT LITTLE ROCK 3.mp3
  24. Benjamin Rush The most important Founding Father you've never heard of 1.mp3
  25. Southern Black Americans Were Angry. Historian Who Lived It Presents The Jim Crow South 1.mp3
  26. Southern Black Americans Were Angry. Historian Who Lived It Presents The Jim Crow South 2.mp3
  27. Malcolm X Integration isn't Dignity 1.mp3
  28. Malcolm X Integration isn't Dignity 2.mp3
Music in this Episode
  Intro: NAS - The World is Yours - 23 seconds
  Outro: Temptations - Ball of Confusion 25 seconds
ShowNotes Archive
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