Moe Factz with Adam Curry for June 7th 2023, Episode number 92 - "White Lies"

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"White Lies"
Moe and Adam deconstruct emergent class of Orange People
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  Josef Mengele - Wikipedia
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    Archived Version
    Wed, 07 Jun 2023 19:27
    Nazi SS doctor at Auschwitz (1911''1979)
    Josef Mengele
    Birth nameJosef Rudolf MengeleNickname(s)Angel of Death (German: Todesengel)White Angel (German: der weiŸe Engel or weiŸer Engel )Wolfgang Gerhard (burial name)Born ( 1911-03-16 ) 16 March 1911G¼nzburg, Kingdom of Bavaria, German EmpireDied7 February 1979 (1979-02-07) (aged 67)South Atlantic Ocean, off Bertioga, Santos, S£o Paulo, BrazilAllegianceNazi GermanyService/branchSchutzstaffelYears of service1938''1945RankSS-Hauptsturmf¼hrer (captain)Service numberNSDAP #5,574,974SS #317,885AwardsAlma materSpouse(s)Irene Sch¶nbein
    '‹
    '‹
    (
    m. 1939;
    div. 1954)
    '‹
    Martha Mengele
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    (
    m. 1958)
    '‹
    ChildrenRolf MengeleSignatureJosef Rudolf Mengele ([ËjoËzÉ›f ËmÉ›Å‹ÉlÉ] ( listen ) ; 16 March 1911 '' 7 February 1979), also known as the Angel of Death (German: Todesengel), was a German Schutzstaffel (SS) officer and physician during World War II. He performed deadly experiments on prisoners at the Auschwitz II (Birkenau) concentration camp, where he was a member of the team of doctors who selected victims to be killed in the gas chambers,[a] and was one of the doctors who administered the gas.
    Before the war, Mengele received doctorates in anthropology and medicine, and began a career as a researcher. He joined the Nazi Party in 1937 and the SS in 1938. He was assigned as a battalion medical officer at the start of World War II, then transferred to the Nazi concentration camps service in early 1943 and assigned to Auschwitz, where he saw the opportunity to conduct genetic research on human subjects. His experiments focused primarily on twins, with no regard for the health or safety of the victims. With Red Army troops sweeping through German-occupied Poland, Mengele was transferred 280 kilometres (170 mi) from Auschwitz to the Gross-Rosen concentration camp on 17 January 1945, ten days before the arrival of the Soviet forces at Auschwitz.
    After the war, Mengele fled to Argentina in July 1949, assisted by a network of former SS members. He initially lived in and around Buenos Aires, then fled to Paraguay in 1959 and Brazil in 1960, all while being sought by West Germany, Israel, and Nazi hunters such as Simon Wiesenthal, who wanted to bring him to trial. Mengele eluded capture in spite of extradition requests by the West German government and clandestine operations by the Israeli intelligence agency Mossad. He drowned in 1979 after suffering a stroke while swimming off the coast of Bertioga, and was buried under the false name of Wolfgang Gerhard. His remains were disinterred and positively identified by forensic examination in 1985.
    Early life [ edit ] Mengele was born into a Catholic family in G¼nzburg, Bavaria on 16 March 1911, the eldest of three sons of Walburga (n(C)e Hupfauer) and Karl Mengele. His two younger brothers were Karl Jr. and Alois. Their father was founder of the Karl Mengele & Sons company (later renamed as Mengele Agrartechnik [de] ), which produced farming machinery. Mengele was successful at school and developed an interest in music, art, and skiing. He completed high school in April 1930 and went on to study philosophy in Munich, where the headquarters of the Nazi Party were located. He attended the University of Bonn, where he took his medical preliminary examination. In 1931 he joined Der Stahlhelm , a paramilitary organization that was absorbed into the Nazi Sturmabteilung ('Storm Detachment'; SA) in 1934. In 1935, Mengele earned a PhD in anthropology from the University of Munich. In January 1937, he joined the Institute for Hereditary Biology and Racial Hygiene in Frankfurt, where he worked for Otmar Freiherr von Verschuer, a German geneticist with a particular interest in researching twins.
    As Von Verschuer's assistant, Mengele focused on the genetic factors that result in a cleft lip and palate, or a cleft chin. His thesis on the subject earned him a cum laude doctorate in medicine (MD) from the University of Frankfurt in 1938. (Both of his degrees were revoked by the issuing universities in the 1960s.) In a letter of recommendation, Von Verschuer praised Mengele's reliability and his ability to verbally present complex material in a clear manner. The American author Robert Jay Lifton notes that Mengele's published works were in keeping with the scientific mainstream of the time, and would probably have been viewed as valid scientific efforts even outside Nazi Germany.
    On 28 July 1939, Mengele married Irene Sch¶nbein, whom he had met while working as a medical resident in Leipzig. Their only son, Rolf, was born in 1944.
    Military service [ edit ] The ideology of Nazism brought together elements of antisemitism, racial hygiene, and eugenics, and combined them with pan-Germanism and territorial expansionism with the goal of obtaining more Lebensraum (living space) for the Germanic people. Nazi Germany attempted to obtain this new territory by attacking Poland and the Soviet Union, intending to deport or kill the Jews and Slavs living there, who were considered by the Nazis to be inferior to the Aryan master race.
    Mengele joined the Nazi Party in 1937 and the Schutzstaffel (SS; 'Protection Squadron') in 1938. He received basic training in 1938 with the Gebirgsj¤ger ('light infantry mountain troop') and was called up for service in the Wehrmacht (Nazi armed forces) in June 1940, some months after the outbreak of World War II. He soon volunteered for medical service in the Waffen-SS , the combat arm of the SS, where he served with the rank of SS-Untersturmf¼hrer ('second lieutenant') in a medical reserve battalion until November 1940. He was next assigned to the SS-Rasse- und Siedlungshauptamt ('SS Race and Settlement Main Office') in PoznaÅ, evaluating candidates for Germanization.
    In June 1941, Mengele was posted to Ukraine, where he was awarded the Iron Cross 2nd Class. In January 1942, he joined the 5th SS Panzer Division Wiking as a battalion medical officer. After rescuing two German soldiers from a burning tank, he was decorated with the Iron Cross 1st Class, the Wound Badge in Black, and the Medal for the Care of the German People. He was declared unfit for further active service in mid-1942, when he was seriously wounded in action near Rostov-on-Don. Following his recovery, he was transferred to the headquarters of the SS Race and Settlement Main Office in Berlin, at which point he resumed his association with Von Verschuer, who was now director of the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute of Anthropology, Human Heredity, and Eugenics. Mengele was promoted to the rank of SS-Hauptsturmf¼hrer ('captain') in April 1943.
    Auschwitz [ edit ] "Selection" of Hungarian Jews on the ramp at Birkenau, May/June 1944
    In 1942, Auschwitz II (Birkenau), originally intended to house slave laborers, began to be used instead as a combined labour camp and extermination camp. Prisoners were transported there by rail from all over Nazi-controlled Europe, arriving in daily convoys. By July 1942, SS doctors were conducting "selections" where incoming Jews were segregated, and those considered able to work were admitted into the camp while those deemed unfit for labor were immediately killed in the gas chambers. The arrivals that were selected to die, about three-quarters of the total,[b] included almost all children, women with small children, pregnant women, all the elderly, and all of those who appeared (in a brief and superficial inspection by an SS doctor) to be not completely fit and healthy.
    In early 1943, Von Verschuer encouraged Mengele to apply for a transfer to the concentration camp service. Mengele's application was accepted and he was posted to Auschwitz, where he was appointed by SS-Standortarzt Eduard Wirths, chief medical officer at Auschwitz, to the position of chief physician of the Zigeunerfamilienlager (Romani family camp) at Birkenau, a subcamp located on the main Auschwitz complex. The SS doctors did not administer treatment to the Auschwitz inmates but supervised the activities of inmate doctors who had been forced to work in the camp medical service. As part of his duties, Mengele made weekly visits to the hospital barracks and ordered any prisoners who had not recovered after two weeks in bed to be sent to the gas chambers.
    Mengele's work also involved carrying out selections, a task that he chose to perform even when he was not assigned to do so, in the hope of finding subjects for his experiments, with a particular interest in locating sets of twins. In contrast to most of the other SS doctors, who viewed selections as one of their most stressful and unpleasant duties, he undertook the task with a flamboyant air, often smiling or whistling. He was one of the SS doctors responsible for supervising the administration of Zyklon B, the cyanide-based pesticide that was used for the mass killings in the Birkenau gas chambers. He served in this capacity at the gas chambers located in crematoria IV and V.
    When an outbreak of noma'--a gangrenous bacterial disease of the mouth and face'--struck the Romani camp in 1943, Mengele initiated a study to determine the cause of the disease and develop a treatment. He enlisted the assistance of prisoner Berthold Epstein, a Jewish pediatrician and professor at Prague University. The patients were isolated in separate barracks and several afflicted children were killed so that their preserved heads and organs could be sent to the SS Medical Academy in Graz and other facilities for study. This research was still ongoing when the Romani camp was liquidated and its remaining occupants killed in 1944.
    When a typhus epidemic began in the women's camp, Mengele cleared one block of six hundred Jewish women and sent them to their deaths in the gas chambers. The building was then cleaned and disinfected and the occupants of a neighboring block were bathed, de''loused, and given new clothing before being moved into the clean block. This process was repeated until all of the barracks were disinfected. Similar procedures were used for later epidemics of scarlet fever and other diseases, with infected prisoners being killed in the gas chambers. For these actions, Mengele was awarded the War Merit Cross (Second Class with swords) and was promoted in 1944 to First Physician of the Birkenau subcamp.
    Human experimentation [ edit ] Mengele used Auschwitz as an opportunity to continue his anthropological studies and research into heredity, using inmates for human experimentation. His medical procedures showed no consideration for the victims' health, safety, or physical and emotional suffering. He was particularly interested in identical twins, people with heterochromia iridum (eyes of two different colors), dwarfs, and people with physical abnormalities. A grant was provided by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft ('German Research Foundation'), at the request of Von Verschuer, who received regular reports and shipments of specimens from Mengele. The grant was used to build a pathology laboratory attached to Crematorium II at Auschwitz II-Birkenau. Mikl"s Nyiszli, a Hungarian Jewish pathologist who arrived in Auschwitz on 29 May 1944, performed dissections and prepared specimens for shipment in this laboratory. The twin research was in part intended to prove the supremacy of heredity over the environment in determining phenotypes and thus strengthen the Nazi premise of the genetic superiority of the Aryan race. Nyiszli and others reported that the twin studies may also have been motivated by an intention to uncover strategies for 'racially desirable' Germans to reproduce more twins.
    Mengele's research subjects were better fed and housed than the other prisoners, and temporarily spared from execution in the gas chambers. His research subjects lived in their own barracks, where they were provided with a marginally better quality of food and somewhat improved living conditions than the other areas of the camp. When visiting his young subjects, he introduced himself as "Uncle Mengele" and offered them sweets, while at the same time being personally responsible for the deaths of an unknown number of victims whom he killed via lethal injection, shootings, beatings, and his deadly experiments. In his 1986 book, Lifton describes Mengele as sadistic, lacking empathy, and extremely antisemitic, believing the Jews should be eliminated as an inferior and dangerous race. Rolf Mengele later claimed that his father had shown no remorse for his wartime activities.
    A former Auschwitz inmate doctor said of Mengele:
    He was capable of being so kind to the children, to have them become fond of him, to bring them sugar, to think of small details in their daily lives, and to do things we would genuinely admire ... And then, next to that, ... the crematoria smoke, and these children, tomorrow or in a half-hour, he is going to send them there. Well, that is where the anomaly lay.
    Jewish children kept alive in Auschwitz for use in Mengele's medical experiments, including twins Miriam Mozes and Eva Mozes (wearing knitted caps). The Red Army liberated these children in January 1945.
    Twins were subjected to weekly examinations and measurements of their physical attributes by Mengele or one of his assistants. The experiments he performed on twins included unnecessary amputation of limbs, intentionally infecting one twin with typhus or some other disease, and transfusing the blood of one twin into the other. Many of the victims died while undergoing these procedures, and those who survived the experiments were sometimes killed and their bodies dissected once Mengele had no further use for them. Nyiszli recalled one occasion on which Mengele personally killed fourteen twins in one night by injecting their hearts with chloroform. If one twin died from disease, he would kill the other twin to allow comparative post-mortem reports to be produced for research purposes.
    Mengele's eye experiments included attempts to change the eye color by injecting chemicals into the eyes of living subjects, and he killed people with heterochromatic eyes so that the eyes could be removed and sent to Berlin for study. His experiments on dwarfs and people with physical abnormalities included taking physical measurements, drawing blood, extracting healthy teeth, and treatment with unnecessary drugs and X-rays. Many of his victims were dispatched to the gas chambers after about two weeks, and their skeletons were sent to Berlin for further analysis. Mengele sought out pregnant women, on whom he would perform experiments before sending them to the gas chambers. Alex Dekel, a survivor, reports witnessing Mengele performing vivisection without anesthesia, removing hearts and stomachs of victims. Yitzhak Ganon, another survivor, reported in 2009 how Mengele removed his kidney without anesthesia. He was forced to return to work without painkillers. Witness Vera Alexander described how Mengele sewed two Romani twins together, back to back, in a crude attempt to create conjoined twins; both children died of gangrene after several days of suffering.
    After Auschwitz [ edit ] Photograph from Mengele's Argentine identification document (1956)
    Along with several other Auschwitz doctors, Mengele transferred to Gross-Rosen concentration camp in Lower Silesia on 17 January 1945, taking with him two boxes of specimens and the records of his experiments at Auschwitz. Most of the camp medical records had already been destroyed by the SS by the time the Red Army liberated Auschwitz on 27 January. Mengele fled Gross-Rosen on 18 February, a week before the Soviets arrived there, and traveled westward to Å½atec in Czechoslovakia, disguised as a Wehrmacht officer. There he temporarily entrusted his incriminating documents to a nurse with whom he had struck up a relationship. He and his unit then hurried west to avoid being captured by the Soviets, but were taken prisoners of war by the Americans in June 1945. Although Mengele was initially registered under his own name, he was not identified as being on the major war criminal list due to the disorganization of the Allies regarding the distribution of wanted lists, and the fact that he did not have the usual SS blood group tattoo. He was released at the end of July and obtained false papers under the name "Fritz Ulmann", documents he later altered to read "Fritz Hollmann".
    After several months on the run, including a trip back to the Soviet-occupied area to recover his Auschwitz records, Mengele found work near Rosenheim as a farmhand. He eventually escaped from Germany on 17 April 1949, convinced that his capture would mean a trial and death sentence. Assisted by a network of former SS members, he used the ratline to travel to Genoa, where he obtained a passport from the International Committee of the Red Cross under the alias "Helmut Gregor", and sailed to Argentina in July 1949. His wife refused to accompany him, and they divorced in 1954.
    In South America [ edit ] Mengele worked as a carpenter in Buenos Aires, Argentina, while lodging in a boarding house in the suburb of Vicente L"pez. After a few weeks, he moved to the house of a Nazi sympathizer in the more affluent neighborhood of Florida Este. He next worked as a salesman for his family's farm equipment company, Karl Mengele & Sons, and in 1951 he began making frequent trips to Paraguay as a regional sales representative. He moved into an apartment in central Buenos Aires in 1953, used family funds to buy a part interest in a carpentry concern, and then rented a house in the suburb of Olivos in 1954. Files released by the Argentine government in 1992 indicate that Mengele may have practiced medicine without a license while living in Buenos Aires, including performing abortions.
    After obtaining a copy of his birth certificate through the West German embassy in 1956, Mengele was issued an Argentine foreign residence permit under his real name. He used this document to obtain a West German passport using his real name and embarked on a trip to Europe. He met with his son Rolf (who was told Mengele was his "Uncle Fritz") and his widowed sister-in-law Martha, for a ski holiday in Switzerland; he also spent a week in his home town of G¼nzburg. When he returned to Argentina in September 1956, Mengele began living under his real name. Martha and her son Karl Heinz followed about a month later, and the three began living together. Josef and Martha were married in 1958 while on holiday in Uruguay, and they bought a house in Buenos Aires. Mengele's business interests now included part ownership of Fadro Farm, a pharmaceutical company. Along with several other doctors, he was questioned in 1958 on suspicion of practicing medicine without a license when a teenage girl died after an abortion, but he was released without charge. Aware that the publicity could lead to his Nazi background and wartime activities being discovered, he took an extended business trip to Paraguay and was granted citizenship there in 1959 under the name "Jos(C) Mengele". He returned to Buenos Aires several times to settle his business affairs and visit his family. Martha and Karl lived in a boarding house in the city until December 1960, when they returned to West Germany.
    Mengele's name was mentioned several times during the Nuremberg trials in the mid-1940s, but the Allied forces believed that he was probably already dead. Irene Mengele and the family in G¼nzburg also alleged that he had died. Working in West Germany, Nazi hunters Simon Wiesenthal and Hermann Langbein collected information from witnesses about Mengele's wartime activities. In a search of the public records, Langbein discovered Mengele's divorce papers, which listed an address in Buenos Aires. He and Wiesenthal pressured the West German authorities into starting extradition proceedings, and an arrest warrant was drawn up on 5 June 1959. Argentina initially refused the extradition request because the fugitive was no longer living at the address given on the documents; by the time extradition was approved on 30 June, Mengele had already fled to Paraguay and was living on a farm near the Argentine border.
    Efforts by Mossad [ edit ] In May 1960, Isser Harel, director of the Israeli intelligence agency Mossad, personally led the successful effort to capture Adolf Eichmann in Buenos Aires. He was hoping to track down Mengele so that he too could be brought to trial in Israel. Under interrogation, Eichmann provided the address of a boarding house that had been used as a safe house for Nazi fugitives. Surveillance of the house did not reveal Mengele or any members of his family, and the neighborhood postman claimed that although Mengele had recently been receiving letters there under his real name, he had since relocated without leaving a forwarding address. Harel's inquiries at a machine shop where Mengele had been part owner also failed to generate any leads, so he was forced to abandon the search.
    Despite having provided Mengele with legal documents using his real name in 1956 (which had enabled him to formalize his permanent residency in Argentina), West Germany was now offering a reward for his capture. Continuing newspaper coverage of his wartime activities, with accompanying photographs, led Mengele to relocate again in 1960. Former pilot Hans-Ulrich Rudel put him in touch with the Nazi supporter Wolfgang Gerhard, who helped Mengele cross the border into Brazil. He stayed with Gerhard on his farm near S£o Paulo until a more permanent accommodation could be found, which came about with Hungarian expatriates G(C)za and Gitta Stammer. The couple bought a farm in Nova Europa with the help of an investment from Mengele, who was given the job of managing for them. The three bought a coffee and cattle farm in Serra Negra in 1962, with Mengele owning a half interest. Gerhard had initially told the Stammers that the fugitive's name was "Peter Hochbichler", but they discovered his true identity in 1963. Gerhard persuaded the couple not to report Mengele's location to the authorities by convincing them that they themselves could be implicated for harboring a fugitive. In February 1961, West Germany widened its extradition request to include Brazil, having been tipped off to the possibility that Mengele had relocated there.
    Meanwhile, Zvi Aharoni, one of the Mossad agents who had been involved in the Eichmann capture, was placed in charge of a team of agents tasked with tracking down Mengele and bringing him to trial in Israel. Their inquiries in Paraguay revealed no clues to his whereabouts, and they were unable to intercept any correspondence between Mengele and his wife Martha, who by this time was living in Italy. Agents who were following Rudel's movements also failed to produce any leads. Aharoni and his team followed Gerhard to a rural area near S£o Paulo, where they identified a European man whom they believed to be Mengele. This potential breakthrough was reported to Harel, but the logistics of staging a capture, the budgetary constraints of the search operation, and the priority of focusing on Israel's deteriorating relationship with Egypt led the Mossad chief to call off the manhunt in 1962.
    Later life and death [ edit ] In 1969, Mengele and the Stammers jointly purchased a farmhouse in Caieiras, with Mengele as half owner. When Wolfgang Gerhard returned to Germany in 1971 to seek medical treatment for his ailing wife and son, he gave his identity card to Mengele. The Stammers' friendship with Mengele deteriorated in late 1974, and when they bought a house in S£o Paulo, he was not invited to join them.[c] The Stammers later bought a bungalow in the Eldorado neighborhood of Diadema, S£o Paulo, which they rented out to Mengele. Rolf, who had not seen his father since the ski holiday in 1956, visited him at the bungalow in 1977; he found an "unrepentant Nazi" who claimed he had never personally harmed anyone and only carried out his duties as an officer.
    Mengele's health had been steadily deteriorating since 1972. He suffered a stroke in 1976, experienced high blood pressure, and developed an ear infection which affected his balance. On 7 February 1979, while visiting his friends Wolfram and Liselotte Bossert in the coastal resort of Bertioga, Mengele suffered another stroke while swimming and drowned. His body was buried in Embu das Artes under the name "Wolfgang Gerhard", whose identification Mengele had been using since 1971. Other aliases used by Mengele in his later life included "Dr. Fausto Rind"n" and "S. Josi Alvers Aspiazu".
    Exhumation [ edit ] Forensic anthropologists examine Mengele's skull in 1986. The skeleton is stored at the S£o Paulo Institute for Forensic Medicine in Brazil.
    Sightings of Mengele were being reported all over the world in the decades following the war. Wiesenthal claimed to have information that placed Mengele on the Greek island of Kythnos in 1960, in Cairo in 1961, in Spain in 1971, and in Paraguay in 1978, eighteen years after he had left the country. He insisted as late as 1985 that Mengele was still alive'--six years after he had died'--having previously offered a reward of US$100,000 (equivalent to $300,000 in 2022) in 1982 for the fugitive's capture. Worldwide interest in the case was heightened by a mock trial held in Jerusalem in February 1985, featuring the testimonies of over one hundred victims of Mengele's experiments. Shortly afterwards, the West German, Israeli, and U.S. governments launched a coordinated effort to determine Mengele's whereabouts. The West German and Israeli governments offered rewards for his capture, as did The Washington Times and the Simon Wiesenthal Center.
    On 31 May 1985, acting on intelligence received by the West German prosecutor's office, police raided the house of Hans Sedlmeier, a lifelong friend of Mengele and sales manager of the family firm in G¼nzburg. They found a coded address book and copies of letters sent to and received from Mengele. Among the papers was a letter from Wolfram Bossert notifying Sedlmeier of Mengele's death. German authorities alerted the police in S£o Paulo, who then contacted the Bosserts. Under interrogation, they revealed the location of Mengele's grave and the remains were exhumed on 6 June 1985. Extensive forensic examination indicated with a high degree of probability that the body was indeed that of Josef Mengele. Rolf Mengele issued a statement on 10 June confirming that the body was his father's and that news of his father's death had been concealed to protect people who had sheltered him.
    In 1992, DNA testing confirmed Mengele's identity beyond doubt, but family members refused repeated requests by Brazilian officials to repatriate the remains to Germany. The skeleton is stored at the S£o Paulo Institute for Forensic Medicine, where it is used as an educational aid during forensic medicine courses at the University of S£o Paulo's medical school.
    Later developments [ edit ] In 2007, the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum received as a donation the H¶cker Album, an album of photographs of Auschwitz staff taken by Karl-Friedrich H¶cker. Eight of the photographs include Mengele.
    In February 2010, a 180-page volume of Mengele's diary was sold by Alexander Autographs at auction for an undisclosed sum to the grandson of a Holocaust survivor. The unidentified previous owner, who acquired the journals in Brazil, was reported to be close to the Mengele family. A Holocaust survivors' organization described the sale as "a cynical act of exploitation aimed at profiting from the writings of one of the most heinous Nazi criminals". Rabbi Marvin Hier of the Simon Wiesenthal Center was glad to see the diary fall into Jewish hands. "At a time when Ahmadinejad's Iran regularly denies the Holocaust and anti-Semitism and hatred of Jews is back in vogue, this acquisition is especially significant", he said. In 2011, a further 31 volumes of Mengele's diaries were sold'--again amidst protests'--by the same auction house to an undisclosed collector of World War II memorabilia for US$245,000.
    Publications [ edit ] Racial-Morphological Examinations of the Anterior Portion of the Lower Jaw in Four Racial Groups. This dissertation, completed in 1935 and first published in 1937, earned him a PhD in anthropology from Munich University. In this work Mengele sought to demonstrate that there were structural differences in the lower jaws of individuals from different ethnic groups, and that racial distinctions could be made based on these differences.Genealogical Studies in the Cases of Cleft Lip-Jaw-Palate (1938), his medical dissertation, earned him a doctorate in medicine from Frankfurt University. Studying the influence of genetics as a factor in the occurrence of this deformity, Mengele conducted research on families who exhibited these traits in multiple generations. The work also included notes on other abnormalities found in these family lines.Hereditary Transmission of Fistulae Auris. This journal article, published in Der Erbarzt ('The Genetic Physician'), focuses on fistula auris (an abnormal fissure on the external ear) as a hereditary trait. Mengele noted that individuals who have this trait also tend to have a dimple on their chin.See also [ edit ] References [ edit ] Informational notes [ edit ] ^ New arrivals that were judged able to work were admitted into the camp, while those deemed unsuitable for labor were sent to the gas chambers. ^ Of the Hungarians who arrived in mid-1944, 85 percent were killed immediately. ^ Based on entries in Mengele's journals and interviews with his friends, historians such as Gerald Posner and Gerald Astor believe that Mengele had a sexual relationship with Gitta Stammer. Citations [ edit ] Bibliography [ edit ] Aderet, Ofer (22 July 2011). "Ultra-Orthodox man buys diaries of Nazi doctor Mengele for $245,000". Haaretz. Archived from the original on 24 September 2015 . Retrieved 20 May 2020 . Allison, Kirk C. (2011). "Eugenics, race hygiene, and the Holocaust: Antecedents and consolidations". In Friedman, Jonathan C (ed.). Routledge History of the Holocaust. Milton Park; New York: Taylor & Francis. pp. 45''58. ISBN 978-0-415-77956-2. Astor, Gerald (1985). Last Nazi: Life and Times of Dr Joseph Mengele. New York: Donald I. Fine. ISBN 978-0-917657-46-7. Blumenthal, Ralph (22 July 1985). "Scientists Decide Brazil Skeleton Is Josef Mengele". The New York Times . Retrieved 1 February 2014 . Brozan, Nadine (15 November 1982). "Out of Death, a Zest for Life". The New York Times. Evans, Richard J. (2008). The Third Reich at War. New York: Penguin. ISBN 978-0-14-311671-4. Gopnik, Adam (15 June 2020). "Revisiting Mengele's Malignant "Race Science" ". The New Yorker . Retrieved 1 January 2023 . Hier, Marvin (2010). "Wiesenthal Center Praises Acquisition of Mengele's Diary". Simon Wiesenthal Center. Archived from the original on 8 May 2017 . Retrieved 2 February 2014 . "In the Matter of Josef Mengele: A Report to the Attorney General of the United States" (PDF) . US Department of Justice, Office of Special Investigations Criminal Division. October 1992. p. 206 . Retrieved 24 June 2022 . Kershaw, Ian (2008). Hitler: A Biography. New York: W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 978-0-393-06757-6. Kubica, Helena (1998) [1994]. "The Crimes of Josef Mengele". In Gutman, Yisrael; Berenbaum, Michael (eds.). Anatomy of the Auschwitz Death Camp . Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Press. pp. 317''337. ISBN 978-0-253-20884-2. Lagnado, Lucette Matalon; Dekel, Sheila Cohn (1991). Children of the Flames: Dr Josef Mengele and the Untold Story of the Twins of Auschwitz. New York: William Morrow. ISBN 978-0-688-09695-3. Lee, Stephen J. (1996). Weimar and Nazi Germany. Oxford: Heinemann Educational. ISBN 0-435-30920-X. Levy, Alan (2006) [1993]. Nazi Hunter: The Wiesenthal File (Revised 2002 ed.). London: Constable & Robinson. ISBN 978-1-84119-607-7. Lifton, Robert Jay (21 July 1985). "What Made This Man? Mengele". The New York Times . Retrieved 11 January 2014 . Lifton, Robert Jay (1986). The Nazi Doctors: Medical Killing and the Psychology of Genocide . New York: Basic Books. ISBN 978-0-465-04905-9. Longerich, Peter (2010). Holocaust: The Nazi Persecution and Murder of the Jews. Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-280436-5. Mozes-Kor, Eva (1992). "Mengele Twins and Human Experimentation: A Personal Account". In Annas, George J.; Grodin, Michael A. (eds.). The Nazi Doctors and the Nuremberg Code: Human Rights in Human Experimentation. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 53''59. ISBN 978-0-19-510106-5. Nash, Nathaniel C. (11 February 1992). "Mengele an Abortionist, Argentine Files Suggest". The New York Times . Retrieved 31 August 2014 . Nyiszli, Mikl"s (2011) [1960]. Auschwitz: A Doctor's Eyewitness Account. New York: Arcade Publishing. ISBN 978-1-61145-011-8. Oster, Marcy (3 February 2010). "Survivor's grandson buys Mengele diary". Jewish Telegraphic Agency . Retrieved 2 February 2014 . Piper, Franciszek (1998) [1994]. "Gas Chambers and Crematoria". In Gutman, Yisrael; Berenbaum, Michael (eds.). Anatomy of the Auschwitz Death Camp . Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Press. pp. 157''182. ISBN 978-0-253-20884-2. Posner, Gerald L.; Ware, John (1986). Mengele: The Complete Story. New York: McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0-07-050598-8. Rees, Laurence (2005). Auschwitz: A New History. New York: Public Affairs. ISBN 978-1-58648-303-6. Saad, Rana (1 April 2005). "Discovery, development, and current applications of DNA identity testing". Baylor University Medical Center Proceedings. 18 (2): 130''133. doi:10.1080/08998280.2005.11928051. PMC 1200713 . PMID 16200161. Schult, Christoph (12 October 2009). "Why One Auschwitz Survivor Avoided Doctors for 65 Years". Spiegel International . Retrieved 8 July 2020 . Segev, Tom (2010). Simon Wiesenthal: The Life and Legends. New York: Doubleday. ISBN 978-0-385-51946-5. Simons, Marlise (17 March 1988). "Remains of Mengele Rest Uneasily in Brazil". The New York Times . Retrieved 2 February 2014 . Staff (2009). "Josef Mengele". United States Holocaust Memorial Museum . Retrieved 22 August 2019 . Staff (11 January 2017). "Nazi doctor Josef Mengele's bones used in Brazil forensic medicine courses". The Guardian. Associated Press . Retrieved 24 August 2019 . Staff (2007). "SS Auschwitz album". United States Holocaust Memorial Museum . Retrieved 30 January 2019 . Steinbacher, Sybille (2005) [2004]. Auschwitz: A History. Munich: Verlag C. H. Beck. ISBN 978-0-06-082581-2. Walters, Guy (2009). Hunting Evil: The Nazi War Criminals Who Escaped and the Quest to Bring Them to Justice. New York: Broadway Books. ISBN 978-0-7679-2873-1. Weindling, Paul (2002). "The Ethical Legacy of Nazi Medical War Crimes: Origins, Human Experiments, and International Justice". In Burley, Justine; Harris, John (eds.). A Companion to Genethics. Blackwell Companions to Philosophy. Malden, MA; Oxford: Blackwell. pp. 53''69. doi:10.1002/9780470756423.ch5. ISBN 978-0-631-20698-9. Zentner, Christian; Bed¼rftig, Friedemann (1991). The Encyclopedia of the Third Reich. New York: Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-02-897502-3. Further reading [ edit ] Benzenh¶fer, Udo; Ackermann, Hanns; Weiske, Katja (2007). "Wissenschaft oder Wahn? Bemerkungen zur M¼nchener Dissertation von Josef Mengele aus dem Jahr 1935 [Science or madness? Comments on Josef Mengele's Munich dissertation from 1935]". In Benzenh¶fer, Udo (ed.). Studien zur Geschichte und Ethik der Medizin mit Schwerpunkt Frankfurt am Main [Studies on the history and ethics of medicine with a focus on Frankfurt am Main] (in German). Wetzlar. pp. 31''41. ISBN 978-3-9811345-4-4. Benzenh¶fer, Udo; Weiske, Katja (2010). "Bemerkungen zur Frankfurter Dissertation von Josef Mengele ¼ber Sippenuntersuchungen bei Lippen-Kiefer-Gaumenspalte [Comments on Josef Mengele's Frankfurt dissertation on family examinations for cleft lip and palate]". In Benzenh¶fer, Udo (ed.). Mengele, Hirt, Holfelder, Berner, von Verschuer, Kranz: Frankfurter Universit¤tsmediziner der NS-Zeit [Mengele, Hirt, Holfelder, Berner, von Verschuer, Kranz: Frankfurt university doctors of the Nazi era] (in German). M¼nster. pp. 9''20. ISBN 978-3-932577-97-0. Benzenh¶fer, Udo (April 2011). "Bemerkungen zum Lebenslauf von Josef Mengele unter besonderer Ber¼cksichtigung seiner Frankfurter Zeit" [Comments on Josef Mengele's curriculum vitae with special reference to his time in Frankfurt] (PDF) . Hessisches rzteblatt (in German). 72: 228''230, 239''240. Harel, Isser (1975). The House on Garibaldi Street: the First Full Account of the Capture of Adolf Eichmann. New York: Viking Press. ISBN 978-0-670-38028-2. Levin, Ira (1991). The Boys from Brazil. London: Bantam. ISBN 978-0-553-29004-2. Lieberman, Herbert A. (1978). The Climate of Hell . New York: Simon and Schuster. ISBN 978-0-671-82236-1. Wharam, Philip (2015). Right to Live: an historical novel based on Mengele's life between 1945 and 1963. London: Lynfa Publishing. ISBN 978-1-5084-8899-6. External links [ edit ] Belnap, David F. (10 August 1979). "Mengele Hunt Focuses on Paraguay". Los Angeles Times. Breitman, Richard (April 2001). "Historical Analysis of 20 Name Files from CIA Records". US National Archives. Papanayotou, Vivi (18 September 2005). "Skeletons in the Closet of German Science". Deutsche Welle. Posner, Gerald; Ware, John (18 May 1986). "How Nazi war criminal Josef Mengele cheated justice for 34 years". Chicago Tribune Magazine. Siegert, Alice (30 June 1985). "His secret out, Rolf Mengele talks about his father". Chicago Tribune Magazine.
  Scientific racism - Wikipedia
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    Wed, 07 Jun 2023 18:52
    Pseudoscientific justification for racism
    "Racial biology" redirects here. For the biological concept of race, see
    Race (biology).
    "Race theory" redirects here. For the intellectual movement and framework, see
    Critical race theory.
    Scientific racism, sometimes termed biological racism, is the pseudoscientific belief that empirical evidence exists to support or justify racism (racial discrimination), racial inferiority, or racial superiority.[1][2][3][4] Before the mid-20th century, scientific racism received credence throughout the scientific community, but it is no longer considered scientific.[2][3] The division of humankind into biologically distinct groups, and the attribution of specific traits both physical and mental to them by constructing and applying corresponding explanatory models, that is, racial theories, is sometimes called racialism, race realism, or race science by its proponents. Modern scientific consensus rejects this view as being irreconcilable with modern genetic research.[5]:'Š360'Š
    Scientific racism misapplies, misconstrues, or distorts anthropology (notably physical anthropology), anthropometry, craniometry, evolutionary biology, and other disciplines or pseudo-disciplines, in proposing anthropological typologies supporting the classification of human populations into physically discrete human races, some of which might be asserted to be superior or inferior to others. Scientific racism was common during the period from the 1600s to the end of World War II, and was particularly prominent in European and American academic writings from the mid 19th century through the early 20th century. Since the second half of the 20th century, scientific racism has been criticized as obsolete and discredited, yet has persistently been used to support or validate racist world-views, based upon belief in the existence and significance of racial categories and a hierarchy of superior and inferior races.[6]
    After the end of World War II, scientific racism in theory and action was formally denounced, especially in UNESCO's early antiracist statement, "The Race Question" (1950): "The biological fact of race and the myth of 'race' should be distinguished. For all practical social purposes, 'race' is not so much a biological phenomenon as a social myth. The myth of 'race' has created an enormous amount of human and social damage. In recent years, it has taken a heavy toll in human lives, and caused untold suffering."[7] Since that time, developments in human evolutionary genetics and physical anthropology have led to a new consensus among anthropologists that human races are a sociopolitical phenomenon rather than a biological one.[8][9][10][11]
    The term scientific racism is generally used pejoratively when applied to more modern theories, such as those in The Bell Curve (1994). Critics argue that such works postulate racist conclusions, such as a genetic connection between race and intelligence, that are unsupported by available evidence.[12] Publications such as the Mankind Quarterly, founded explicitly as a "race-conscious" journal, are generally regarded as platforms of scientific racism, because they publish fringe interpretations of human evolution, intelligence, ethnography, language, mythology, archaeology, and race.
    Antecedents Enlightenment thinkers During the Age of Enlightenment (an era from the 1650s to the 1780s), concepts of monogenism and polygenism became popular, though they would only be systematized epistemologically during the 19th century. Monogenism contends that all races have a single origin, while polygenism is the idea that each race has a separate origin. Until the 18th century, the words "race" and "species" were interchangeable.[13]
    Fran§ois Bernier Fran§ois Bernier (1620''1688) was a French physician and traveller. In 1684, he published a brief essay dividing humanity into what he called ''races,'' distinguishing individuals, and particularly women, by skin color and a few other physical traits. The article was published anonymously in the Journal des Savants, the earliest academic journal published in Europe, and titled ''New Division of the Earth by the Different Species or 'Races' of Man that Inhabit It.''[14]
    In the essay, he distinguished four different races: 1) The first race included populations from Europe, North Africa, the Middle East, India, south-east Asia, and the Americas; 2) the second race consisted of the sub-Saharan Africans; 3) the third race consisted of the east- and northeast Asians; and, 4) the fourth race were Smi people. A product of French Salon culture, the essay placed an emphasis on different kinds of female beauty. Bernier emphasized that his novel classification was based on his personal experience as a traveler in different parts of the world. Bernier offered a distinction between essential genetic differences and accidental ones that depended on environmental factors. He also suggested that the latter criterion might be relevant to distinguish sub-types.[15] His biological classification of racial types never sought to go beyond physical traits, and he also accepted the role of climate and diet in explaining degrees of human diversity. Bernier had been the first to extend the concept of "species of man" to racially classify the entirety of humanity, but he did not establish a cultural hierarchy between the so-called 'races' that he had conceived. On the other hand, he clearly placed white Europeans as the norm from which other 'races' deviated.[16][15]
    The qualities which he attributed to each race were not strictly Eurocentric, because he thought that peoples of temperate Europe, the Americas, and India'--although culturally very different from one another'--belonged to roughly the same racial group, and he explained the differences between the civilizations of India (his main area of expertise) and Europe through climate and institutional history. By contrast, he emphasized the biological difference between Europeans and Africans, and made very negative comments towards the Smi (Lapps) of the coldest climates of Northern Europe,[16] and about Africans living at the Cape of Good Hope. For example, Bernier wrote: ''The 'Lappons' compose the 4th race. They are a small and short race with thick legs, wide shoulders, a short neck, and a face that I don't know how to describe, except that it's long, truly awful, and seems reminiscent of a bear's face. I've only ever seen them twice in Danzig, but according to the portraits I've seen, and from what I've heard from a number of people, they're ugly animals.''[17] The significance of Bernier's ideology for the emergence of what Joan-Pau Rubi(C)s called the ''modern racial discourse'' has been debated, with Siep Stuurman considering it the beginning of modern racial thought,[16] while Joan-Pau Rubi(C)s believes it is less significant if Bernier's entire view of humanity is taken into account.[15]
    Robert Boyle An early scientist who studied race was Robert Boyle (1627''1691), an Anglo-Irish natural philosopher, chemist, physicist, and inventor. Boyle believed in what today is called 'monogenism,' that is, that all races, no matter how diverse, came from the same source: Adam and Eve. He studied reported stories of parents' giving birth to differently coloured albinos, so he concluded that Adam and Eve were originally white, and that whites could give birth to different coloured races. Theories of Robert Hooke and Isaac Newton about color and light via optical dispersion in physics were also extended by Robert Boyle into discourses of polygenesis,[13] speculating that perhaps these differences were due to ''seminal impressions.'' However, Boyle's writings mentioned that at his time, for ''European Eyes,'' beauty was not measured so much in colour, but in ''stature, comely symmetry of the parts of the body, and good features in the face.''[18] Various members of the scientific community rejected his views, and described them as "disturbing" or "amusing."[19]
    Richard Bradley Richard Bradley (1688''1732) was an English naturalist. In his book titled Philosophical Account of the Works of Nature (1721), Bradley claimed there to be ''five sorts of men'' based on their skin colour and other physical characteristics: white Europeans with beards; white men in America without beards (meaning Native Americans); men with copper-coloured skin, small eyes, and straight black hair; Blacks with straight black hair; and Blacks with curly hair. It has been speculated that Bradley's account inspired Linnaeus' later categorisation.[20]
    Lord Kames The Scottish lawyer Henry Home, Lord Kames (1696''1782) was a polygenist; he believed God had created different races on Earth in separate regions. In his 1734 book Sketches on the History of Man, Home claimed that the environment, climate, or state of society could not account for racial differences, so the races must have come from distinct, separate stocks.[21]
    Carl Linnaeus Homo monstrosus, or Patagonian giants, from
    Voyage au pole sud et dans l'Oc(C)anie (
    Voyage to the South Pole, and in Oceania), by
    Jules Dumont d'UrvilleCarl Linnaeus (1707''1778), the Swedish physician, botanist, and zoologist, modified the established taxonomic bases of binomial nomenclature for fauna and flora, and also made a classification of humans into different subgroups. In the twelfth edition of Systema Naturae (1767), he labeled five[22] "varieties"[23][24] of human species.Each one was described as possessing the following physiognomic characteristics ''varying by culture and place'':[25]
    The Americanus: red, choleric, upright; black, straight, thick hair; nostrils flared; face freckled; beardless chin; stubborn, zealous, free; painting themself with red lines; governed by habit.[26]The Europeanus: white, sanguine, muscular; with yellowish, long hair; blue eyes; gentle, acute, inventive; covered with close vestments; governed by customs.[27]The Asiaticus: yellow, melancholic, stiff; black hair, dark eyes; austere, haughty, greedy; covered with loose clothing; governed by beliefs.[28]The Afer or Africanus: black, phlegmatic, relaxed; black, frizzled hair; silky skin, flat nose, tumid lips; females with elongated labia; mammary glands give milk abundantly; sly, lazy, negligent; anoints themself with grease; governed by caprice.[29][30][31][32]The Monstrosus were mythologic humans which did not appear in the first editions of Systema Naturae. The sub-species included: the ''four-footed, mute, hairy'' Homo feralis (Feral man); the animal-reared Juvenis lupinus hessensis (Hessian wolf boy); the Juvenis hannoveranus (Hannoverian boy); the Puella campanica (Wild-girl of Champagne); the agile, but faint-hearted Homo monstrosus (Monstrous man); the Patagonian giant; the Dwarf of the Alps; and the monorchid Khoikhoi (Hottentot). In Amoenitates academicae (1763), Linnaeus presented the mythologic Homo anthropomorpha (Anthropomorphic man), or humanoid creatures, such as the troglodyte, the satyr, the hydra, and the phoenix, incorrectly identified as simian creatures.[33]There are disagreements about the basis for Linnaeus' human taxa. On the one hand, his harshest critics say the classification was not only ethnocentric, but seemed to be based upon skin colour. Renato G. Mazzolini argued that classifications based on skin colour, at its core, were a white/black polarity, and that Linnaeus' thinking became paradigmatic for later racist beliefs.[34] On the other hand, Quintyn (2010) points out that some authors believed that Linnaeus' classification was based upon geographical distribution, being cartographically-based, and not hierarchical.[35] In the opinion of Kenneth A.R. Kennedy (1976), Linnaeus certainly considered his own culture as superior, but his motives for the classification of human varieties were not race-centered.[36] Paleontologist Stephen Jay Gould (1994) argued that the taxa was ''not in the ranked order favored by most Europeans in the racist tradition,'' and that Linnaeus' division was influenced by the medical theory of humors, which said that a person's temperament may be related to biological fluids.[37][38] In a 1994 essay, Gould added: ''I don't mean to deny that Linnaeus held conventional beliefs about the superiority of his own European variety over others... nevertheless, and despite these implications, the overt geometry of Linnaeus' model is not linear or hierarchical.''[39]
    In a 2008 essay published by the Linnean Society of London, Marie-Christine Skuncke interpreted Linnaeus' statements as reflecting a view that ''Europeans' superiority resides in "culture," and that the decisive factor in Linnaeus' taxa was "culture," not race.'' Thus, regarding this topic, Skuncke considers Linnaeus' view as merely "eurocentric," arguing that Linnaeus never called for racist action, and did not use the word "race," which was only introduced later ''by his French opponent, Buffon.''[40] However, the anthropologist Ashley Montagu, in his book Man's Most Dangerous Myth: the Fallacy of Race, points out that Buffon, indeed ''the enemy of all rigid classifications,''[41] was diametrically opposed to such broad categories, and did not use the word "race" to describe them. ''It was quite clear, after reading Buffon, that he uses the word in no narrowly defined, but rather in a general sense,''[41] wrote Montagu, pointing out that Buffon did employ the French word la race, but as a collective term for whatever population he happened to be discussing at the time; for instance: ''The Danish, Swedish, and Muscovite Laplanders, the inhabitants of Nova-Zembla, the Borandians, the Samoiedes, the Ostiacks of the old continent, the Greenlanders, and the savages to the north of the Esquimaux Indians, of the new continent, appear to be of one common race.''[42]
    Scholar Stanley A. Rice agrees that Linnaeus' classification was not meant to ''imply a hierarchy of humanness or superiority'';[43] however, modern critics regard Linnaeus' classification as obviously stereotyped and erroneous for having included anthropological, non-biological features, such as customs or traditions.
    John Hunter. Painted by John Jackson in 1813, after an original by Sir Joshua Reynolds, who exhibited his painting at the Royal Academy in 1786.
    John Hunter John Hunter (1728''1793), a Scottish surgeon, believed that the Negroid race was originally white at birth. He thought that over time, because of the sun, the people turned dark-skinned, or "black." Hunter also stated that blisters and burns would likely turn white on a Negro, which he asserted was evidence that their ancestors were originally white.[44]
    Charles White Charles White (1728''1813), an English physician and surgeon, believed that races occupied different stations in the ''Great Chain of Being,'' and he tried to scientifically prove that human races had distinct origins from each other. He speculated that whites and Negroes were two different species. White was a believer in polygeny, the idea that different races had been created separately. His Account of the Regular Gradation in Man (1799) provided an empirical basis for this idea. White defended the theory of polygeny by rebutting French naturalist Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon's interfertility argument, which said that only the same species can interbreed. White pointed to species hybrids, such as foxes, wolves, and jackals, which were separate groups that were still able to interbreed. For White, each race was a separate species, divinely created for its own geographical region.[21]
    Johann Friedrich Blumenbach
    Buffon and Blumenbach The French naturalist Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon (1707''1788) and the German anatomist Johann Blumenbach (1752''1840) were proponents of monogenism, the concept that all races have a single origin.[45] Buffon and Blumenbach believed a "degeneration theory" of the origins of racial difference.[45] Both asserted that Adam and Eve were white, and that other races came about by degeneration owing to environmental factors, such as climate, disease, and diet.[45] According to this model, Negroid pigmentation arose because of the heat of the tropical sun; that cold wind caused the tawny colour of the Eskimos; and that the Chinese had fairer skins than the Tartars, because the former kept mostly in towns, and were protected from environmental factors.[45] Environmental factors, poverty, and hybridization could make races "degenerate," and differentiate them from the original white race by a process of "raciation."[45] Interestingly, both Buffon and Blumenbach believed that the degeneration could be reversed if proper environmental control was taken, and that all contemporary forms of man could revert to the original white race.[45]
    According to Blumenbach, there are five races, all belonging to a single species: Caucasian, Mongolian, Negroid, American, and the Malay race. Blumenbach stated: ''I have allotted the first place to the Caucasian for the reasons given below, which make me esteem it the primeval one.''[46]
    Before James Hutton and the emergence of scientific geology, many believed the earth was only 6,000 years old. Buffon had conducted experiments with heated balls of iron, which he believed were a model for the earth's core, and concluded that the earth was 75,000 years old, but did not extend the time since Adam and the origin of humanity back more than 8,000 years'--not much further than the 6,000 years of the prevailing Ussher chronology subscribed to by most of the monogenists.[45] Opponents of monogenism believed that it would have been difficult for races to change markedly in such a short period of time.[45]
    Benjamin Rush Benjamin Rush (1745''1813), a Founding Father of the United States and a physician, proposed that being black was a hereditary skin disease, which he called "negroidism," and that it could be cured. Rush believed non-whites were actually white underneath, but that they were stricken with a non-contagious form of leprosy, which darkened their skin color. Rush drew the conclusion that ''whites should not tyrannize over [blacks], for their disease should entitle them to a double portion of humanity. However, by the same token, whites should not intermarry with them, for this would tend to infect posterity with the 'disorder''... attempts must be made to cure the disease.''[47]
    Christoph Meiners Christoph Meiners (1747''1810) was a German polygenist, and believed that each race had a separate origin. Meiners studied the physical, mental, and moral characteristics of each race, and built a race hierarchy based on his findings. Meiners split mankind into two divisions, which he labelled the ''beautiful white race'' and the ''ugly black race.'' In his book titled The Outline of History of Mankind, Meiners argued that a main characteristic of race is either beauty or ugliness. Meiners thought only the white race to be beautiful, and considered ugly races to be inferior, immoral, and animal-like. Meiners wrote about how the dark, ugly peoples were differentiated from the white, beautiful peoples by their "sad" lack of virtue and their ''terrible vices.''[48]
    Meiners hypothesized about how the Negro felt less pain than any other race, and lacked in emotions. Meiners wrote that the Negro had thick nerves, and thus, was not sensitive like the other races. He went so far as to say that the Negro possessed ''no human, barely any animal, feeling.'' Meiners described a story where a Negro was condemned to death by being burned alive. Halfway through the burning, the Negro asked to smoke a pipe, and smoked it like nothing was happening while he continued to be burned alive. Meiners studied the anatomy of the Negro, and came to the conclusion that Negroes were all carnivores, based upon his observations that Negroes had bigger teeth and jaws than any other race. Meiners claimed the skull of the Negro was larger, but the brain of the Negro was smaller than any other race. Meiners theorized that the Negro was the most unhealthy race on Earth because of its poor diet, mode of living, and lack of morals.[49]
    Meiners studied the diet of the Americans, and said they fed off any kind of ''foul offal,'' and consumed copious amounts of alcohol. He believed their skulls were so thick that the blades of Spanish swords shattered on them. Meiners also claimed the skin of an American is thicker than that of an ox.[49]
    Meiners wrote that the noblest race was the Celts. This was based upon assertions that they were able to conquer various parts of the world, they were more sensitive to heat and cold, and their delicacy is shown by the way they are selective about what they eat. Meiners claimed that Slavs are an inferior race, ''less sensitive and content with eating rough food.'' He described stories of Slavs allegedly eating poisonous fungi without coming to any harm. He claimed that their medical techniques were also counterproductive; as an example, Meiners described their practice of warming up sick people in ovens, then making them roll in the snow.[49]
    Later thinkers Thomas Jefferson Thomas Jefferson (1743''1826) was an American politician, scientist,[50][51] and slave owner. His contributions to scientific racism have been noted by many historians, scientists, and scholars. According to an article published in the McGill Journal of Medicine: ''One of the most influential pre-Darwinian racial theorists, Jefferson's call for science to determine the obvious 'inferiority' of African Americans is an extremely important stage in the evolution of scientific racism.''[52] Writing for The New York Times, historian Paul Finkelman described how as ''a scientist, Jefferson nevertheless speculated that blackness might come 'from the color of the blood,' and concluded that blacks were 'inferior to the whites in the endowments of body and mind'.''[53] In his ''Notes on the State of Virginia,'' Jefferson described black people as follows:[54]
    They seem to require less sleep. A black, after hard labor through the day, will be induced by the slightest amusements to sit up till midnight, or later, though knowing he must be out with the first dawn of the morning. They are at least as brave, and more adventuresome. But, this may perhaps proceed from a want of forethought, which prevents their seeing a danger till it be present. When present, they do not go through it with more coolness or steadiness than the whites. They are more ardent after their female: but love seems with them to be more an eager desire, than a tender delicate mixture of sentiment and sensation. Their griefs are transient. Those numberless afflictions, which render it doubtful whether heaven has given life to us in mercy or in wrath, are less felt, and sooner forgotten with them. In general, their existence appears to participate more of sensation than reflection... Comparing them by their faculties of memory, reason, and imagination, it appears to me, that in memory, they are equal to the whites; in reason, much inferior, as I think one [black] could scarcely be found capable of tracing and comprehending the investigations of Euclid; and that in imagination, they are dull, tasteless, and anomalous... I advance it, therefore, as a suspicion only, that the blacks, whether originally a distinct race, or made distinct by time and circumstances, are inferior to the whites in the endowments both of body and mind.
    However, by 1791, Jefferson had to reassess his earlier suspicions of whether blacks were capable of intelligence when he was presented with a letter and almanac from Benjamin Banneker, an educated black mathematician. Delighted to have discovered scientific proof for the existence of black intelligence, Jefferson wrote to Banneker:[55]
    No body wishes more than I do to see such proofs as you exhibit, that nature has given to our black brethren, talents equal to those of the other colors of men, & that the appearance of a want of them is owing merely to the degraded condition of their existence both in Africa & America. I can add with truth that no body wishes more ardently to see a good system commenced for raising the condition both of their body & mind to what it ought to be, as fast as the imbecility of their present existence, and other circumstance which cannot be neglected, will admit.
    Samuel Stanhope Smith Samuel Stanhope Smith (1751''1819) was an American Presbyterian minister and author of the Essay on the Causes of Variety of Complexion and Figure in the Human Species (1787). Smith claimed that Negro pigmentation was nothing more than a huge freckle that covered the whole body as a result of an oversupply of bile, which was caused by tropical climates.[56]
    Georges Cuvier Racial studies by Georges Cuvier (1769''1832), the French naturalist and zoologist, influenced both scientific polygenism and scientific racism. Cuvier believed there were three distinct races: the Caucasian (white), Mongolian (yellow), and the Ethiopian (black). He rated each for the beauty or ugliness of the skull and quality of their civilizations. Cuvier wrote about Caucasians: ''The white race, with oval face, straight hair and nose, to which the civilised people of Europe belong, and which appear to us the most beautiful of all, is also superior to others by its genius, courage, and activity.''[57]
    Regarding Negroes, Cuvier wrote:[58]
    The Negro race '... is marked by black complexion, crisped or woolly hair, compressed cranium, and a flat nose. The projection of the lower parts of the face, and the thick lips, evidently approximate it to the monkey tribe: the hordes of which it consists have always remained in the most complete state of barbarism.
    He thought Adam and Eve were Caucasian, and hence, the original race of mankind. The other two races arose by survivors escaping in different directions after a major catastrophe hit the earth approximately 5,000 years ago. Cuvier theorized that the survivors lived in complete isolation from each other, and developed separately as a result.[59][60]
    One of Cuvier's pupils, Friedrich Tiedemann, was among the first to make a scientific contestation of racism. Tiedemann asserted that based upon his documentation of craniometric and brain measurements of Europeans and black people from different parts of the world, that the then-common European belief that Negroes have smaller brains, and are thus intellectually inferior, was scientifically unfounded, and based merely on the prejudice of travellers and explorers.[61]
    Arthur Schopenhauer The German philosopher Arthur Schopenhauer (1788''1860) attributed civilizational primacy to the white races, who gained sensitivity and intelligence via the refinement caused by living in the rigorous Northern climate:[62]
    The highest civilization and culture, apart from the ancient Hindus and Egyptians, are found exclusively among the white races; and even with many dark peoples, the ruling caste, or race, is fairer in colour than the rest, and has, therefore, evidently immigrated, for example, the Brahmins, the Inca, and the rulers of the South Sea Islands. All this is due to the fact that necessity is the mother of invention, because those tribes that emigrated early to the north, and there gradually became white, had to develop all their intellectual powers, and invent and perfect all the arts in their struggle with need, want, and misery, which, in their many forms, were brought about by the climate. This they had to do to make up for the parsimony of nature, and out of it all came their high civilization.
    Franz Ignaz Pruner Franz Ignaz Pruner (1808''1882) was a German physician, ophthalmologist, and anthropologist who studied the racial structure of Negroes in Egypt. In a book Pruner wrote in 1846, he claimed that Negro blood had a negative influence on the Egyptian moral character. He published a monograph on Negroes in 1861. He claimed that the main feature of the Negro's skeleton is prognathism, which he claimed was the Negro's relation to the ape. He also claimed that Negroes had brains very similar to those of apes and that Negroes have a shortened big toe, a characteristic, he said, that connected Negroes closely to apes.[63]
    Racial theories in physical anthropology (1850''1918) A late-19th-century illustration by H. Strickland Constable shows an alleged similarity between "
    Irish Iberian" and "Negro" features in contrast to the higher "Anglo-Teutonic".
    The scientific classification established by Carl Linnaeus is requisite to any human racial classification scheme. In the 19th century, unilineal evolution, or classical social evolution, was a conflation of competing sociologic and anthropologic theories proposing that Western European culture was the acme of human socio-cultural evolution. The Christian Bible was interpreted to sanction slavery and from the 1820s to the 1850s was often used in the antebellum Southern United States, by writers such as the Rev. Richard Furman and Thomas R. Cobb, to enforce the idea that Negroes had been created inferior, and thus suited to slavery.[64]
    Arthur de Gobineau The French aristocrat and writer Arthur de Gobineau (1816''1882), is best known for his book An Essay on the Inequality of the Human Races (1853''55) which proposed three human races (black, white and yellow) were natural barriers and claimed that race mixing would lead to the collapse of culture and civilization. He claimed that "The white race originally possessed the monopoly of beauty, intelligence and strength" and that any positive accomplishments or thinking of blacks and Asians were due to an admixture with whites. His works were praised by many white supremacist American pro-slavery thinkers such as Josiah C. Nott and Henry Hotze.
    Gobineau believed that the different races originated in different areas, the white race had originated somewhere in Siberia, the Asians in the Americas and the blacks in Africa. He believed that the white race was superior, writing:
    I will not wait for the friends of equality to show me such and such passages in books written by missionaries or sea captains, who declare some Wolof is a fine carpenter, some Hottentot a good servant, that a Kaffir dances and plays the violin, that some Bambara knows arithmetic'... Let us leave aside these puerilities and compare together not men, but groups.[65]
    Gobineau later used the term "Aryans" to describe the Germanic peoples (la race germanique).[66]
    Gobineau's works were also influential to the Nazi Party, which published his works in German. They played a key role in the master race theory of Nazism.
    Carl Vogt Another polygenist evolutionist was Carl Vogt (1817''1895) who believed that the Negro race was related to the ape. He wrote the white race was a separate species to Negroes. In Chapter VII of his Lectures of Man (1864) he compared the Negro to the white race whom he described as "two extreme human types". The difference between them, he claimed are greater than those between two species of ape; and this proves that Negroes are a separate species from the whites.[67]
    Charles Darwin Charles Darwin's views on race have been a topic of much discussion and debate. According to Jackson and Weidman, Darwin was a moderate in the 19th century debates about race. "He was not a confirmed racist '-- he was a staunch abolitionist, for example '-- but he did think that there were distinct races that could be ranked in a hierarchy."[68]
    Darwin's influential 1859 book On the Origin of Species did not discuss human origins. The extended wording on the title page, which adds by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life, uses the general terminology of biological races as an alternative for "varieties" such as "the several races, for instance, of the cabbage", and does not carry the modern connotation of human races. In The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex (1871), Darwin examined the question of "Arguments in favour of, and opposed to, ranking the so-called races of man as distinct species" and reported no racial distinctions that would indicate that human races are discrete species.[64][69]
    The historian Richard Hofstadter wrote:
    Although Darwinism was not the primary source of the belligerent ideology and dogmatic racism of the late nineteenth century, it did become a new instrument in the hands of the theorists of race and struggle... The Darwinist mood sustained the belief in Anglo-Saxon racial superiority which obsessed many American thinkers in the latter half of the nineteenth century. The measure of world domination already achieved by the 'race' seemed to prove it the fittest.[70]
    According to the historian Gertrude Himmelfarb, "The subtitle of [The Origin of Species] made a convenient motto for racists: 'The Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life.' Darwin, of course, took 'races' to mean varieties or species; but it was no violation of his meaning to extend it to human races.... Darwin himself, in spite of his aversion to slavery, was not averse to the idea that some races were more fit than others."[71]
    On the other hand, Robert Bannister defended Darwin on the issue of race, writing that "Upon closer inspection, the case against Darwin himself quickly unravels. An ardent opponent of slavery, he consistently opposed the oppression of nonwhites... Although by modern standards The Descent of Man is frustratingly inconclusive on the critical issues of human equality, it was a model of moderation and scientific caution in the context of midcentury racism."[72]
    Herbert Hope Risley As an exponent of "race science", colonial administrator Herbert Hope Risley (1851''1911) used the ratio of the width of a nose to its height to divide Indian people into Aryan and Dravidian races, as well as seven castes.
    Ernst Haeckel Like most of Darwin's supporters,[citation needed ] Ernst Haeckel (1834''1919) put forward a doctrine of evolutionary polygenism based on the ideas of the linguist and polygenist August Schleicher, in which several different language groups had arisen separately from speechless prehuman Urmenschen (German for "original humans"), which themselves had evolved from simian ancestors. These separate languages had completed the transition from animals to man, and, under the influence of each main branch of languages, humans had evolved as separate species, which could be subdivided into races. Haeckel divided human beings into ten races, of which the Caucasian was the highest and the primitives were doomed to extinction.[75] Haeckel was also an advocate of the out of Asia theory by writing that the origin of humanity was to be found in Asia; he believed that Hindustan (South Asia) was the actual location where the first humans had evolved. Haeckel argued that humans were closely related to the primates of Southeast Asia and rejected Darwin's hypothesis of Africa.[76][77]
    Haeckel also wrote that Negroes have stronger and more freely movable toes than any other race which is evidence that Negroes are related to apes because when apes stop climbing in trees they hold on to the trees with their toes. Haeckel compared Negroes to "four-handed" apes. Haeckel also believed Negroes were savages and that whites were the most civilised.[67]
    Nationalism of Lapouge and Herder At the 19th century's end, scientific racism conflated Greco-Roman eugenicism with Francis Galton's concept of voluntary eugenics to produce a form of coercive, anti-immigrant government programs influenced by other socio-political discourses and events. Such institutional racism was effected via phrenology, telling character from physiognomy; craniometric skull and skeleton studies; thus skulls and skeletons of black people and other colored volk, were displayed between apes and white men.
    In 1906, Ota Benga, a Pygmy, was displayed as the "Missing Link", in the Bronx Zoo, New York City, alongside apes and animals. The most influential theorists included the anthropologist Georges Vacher de Lapouge (1854''1936) who proposed "anthroposociology"; and Johann Gottfried Herder (1744''1803), who applied "race" to nationalist theory, thereby developing the first conception of ethnic nationalism. In 1882, Ernest Renan contradicted Herder with a nationalism based upon the "will to live together", not founded upon ethnic or racial prerequisites (see Civic nationalism). Scientific racist discourse posited the historical existence of "national races" such as the Deutsche Volk in Germany, and the "French race" being a branch of the basal "Aryan race" extant for millennia, to advocate for geopolitical borders parallel to the racial ones.
    Craniometry and physical anthropology The Dutch scholar Pieter Camper (1722''89), an early craniometric theoretician, used "craniometry" (interior skull-volume measurement) to scientifically justify racial differences. In 1770, he conceived of the facial angle to measure intelligence among species of men. The facial angle was formed by drawing two lines: a horizontal line from nostril to ear; and a vertical line from the upper-jawbone prominence to the forehead prominence. Camper's craniometry reported that antique statues (the Greco-Roman ideal) had a 90-degree facial angle, whites an 80-degree angle, blacks a 70-degree angle, and the orangutan a 58-degree facial angle'--thus he established a racist biological hierarchy for mankind, per the Decadent conception of history. Such scientific racist researches were continued by the naturalist ‰tienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire (1772''1844) and the anthropologist Paul Broca (1824''1880).
    Samuel George Morton Racialist differences: "a Negro head ... a Caucasian skull ... a Mongol head",
    Samuel George Morton, 1839
    In the 19th century, an early American physical anthropologist, physician and polygenist Samuel George Morton (1799''1851), collected human skulls from worldwide, and attempted a logical classification scheme. Influenced by contemporary racialist theory, Dr Morton said he could judge racial intellectual capacity by measuring the interior cranial capacity, hence a large skull denoted a large brain, thus high intellectual capacity. Conversely, a small skull denoted a small brain, thus low intellectual capacity; superior and inferior established. After inspecting three mummies from ancient Egyptian catacombs, Morton concluded that Caucasians and Negroes were already distinct three thousand years ago. Since interpretations of the bible indicated that Noah's Ark had washed up on Mount Ararat only a thousand years earlier, Morton claimed that Noah's sons could not possibly account for every race on earth. According to Morton's theory of polygenesis, races have been separate since the start.[78]
    In Morton's Crania Americana, his claims were based on craniometry data, that the Caucasians had the biggest brains, averaging 87 cubic inches, Native Americans were in the middle with an average of 82 cubic inches and Negroes had the smallest brains with an average of 78 cubic inches.[78]
    In The Mismeasure of Man (1981), the evolutionary biologist and historian of science Stephen Jay Gould argued that Samuel Morton had falsified the craniometric data, perhaps inadvertently over-packing some skulls, to so produce results that would legitimize the racist presumptions he was attempting to prove. A subsequent study by the anthropologist John Michael found Morton's original data to be more accurate than Gould describes, concluding that "[c]ontrary to Gould's interpretation... Morton's research was conducted with integrity".[79] Jason Lewis and colleagues reached similar conclusions as Michael in their reanalysis of Morton's skull collection; however, they depart from Morton's racist conclusions by adding that "studies have demonstrated that modern human variation is generally continuous, rather than discrete or "racial", and that most variation in modern humans is within, rather than between, populations".[80]
    In 1873, Paul Broca, founder of the Anthropological Society of Paris (1859), found the same pattern of measures'--that Crania Americana reported'--by weighing specimen brains at autopsy. Other historical studies, proposing a black race''white race, intelligence''brain size difference, include those by Bean (1906), Mall (1909), Pearl (1934), and Vint (1934).
    Nicols Palacios After the War of the Pacific (1879''83) there was a rise of racial and national superiority ideas among the Chilean ruling class.[81] In his 1918 book physician Nicols Palacios argued for the existence of Chilean race and its superiority when compared to neighboring peoples. He thought Chileans were a mix of two martial races: the indigenous Mapuches and the Visigoths of Spain, who descended ultimately from G¶taland in Sweden. Palacios argued on medical grounds against immigration to Chile from southern Europe claiming that Mestizos who are of south European stock lack "cerebral control" and are a social burden.[82]
    Monogenism and polygenism Samuel Morton's followers, especially Dr Josiah C. Nott (1804''1873) and George Gliddon (1809''1857), extended Dr Morton's ideas in Types of Mankind (1854), claiming that Morton's findings supported the notion of polygenism (mankind has discrete genetic ancestries; the races are evolutionarily unrelated), which is a predecessor of the modern human multiregional origin hypothesis. Moreover, Morton himself had been reluctant to espouse polygenism, because it theologically challenged the Christian creation myth espoused in the Bible.
    Later, in The Descent of Man (1871), Charles Darwin proposed the single-origin hypothesis, i.e., monogenism'--mankind has a common genetic ancestry, the races are related, opposing everything that the polygenism of Nott and Gliddon proposed.
    Typologies One of the first typologies used to classify various human races was invented by Georges Vacher de Lapouge (1854''1936), a theoretician of eugenics, who published in 1899 L'Aryen et son r´le social (1899 '' "The Aryan and his social role"). In this book, he classified humanity into various, hierarchized races, spanning from the "Aryan white race, dolichocephalic", to the "brachycephalic", "mediocre and inert" race, best represented by Southern European, Catholic peasants".[83] Between these, Vacher de Lapouge identified the "Homo europaeus" (Teutonic, Protestant, etc.), the "Homo alpinus" (Auvergnat, Turkish, etc.), and finally the "Homo mediterraneus" (Neapolitan, Andalus, etc.) Jews were dolichocephalic like the Aryans, according to Lapouge, but exactly for this reason he considered them to be dangerous; they were the only group, he thought, threatening to displace the Aryan aristocracy.[84] Vacher de Lapouge became one of the leading inspirators of Nazi antisemitism and Nazi racist ideology.[85]
    Vacher de Lapouge's classification was mirrored in William Z. Ripley in The Races of Europe (1899), a book which had a large influence on American white supremacism. Ripley even made a map of Europe according to the alleged cephalic index of its inhabitants. He was an important influence of the American eugenist Madison Grant.
    Furthermore, according to John Efron of Indiana University, the late 19th century also witnessed "the scientizing of anti-Jewish prejudice", stigmatizing Jews with male menstruation, pathological hysteria, and nymphomania.[86][87] At the same time, several Jews, such as Joseph Jacobs or Samuel Weissenberg, also endorsed the same pseudoscientific theories, convinced that the Jews formed a distinct race.[86][87] Chaim Zhitlovsky also attempted to define Yiddishkayt (Ashkenazi Jewishness) by turning to contemporary racial theory.[88]
    Joseph Deniker (1852''1918) was one of William Z. Ripley's principal opponents; whereas Ripley maintained, as did Vacher de Lapouge, that the European populace comprised three races, Joseph Deniker proposed that the European populace comprised ten races (six primary and four sub-races). Furthermore, he proposed that the concept of "race" was ambiguous, and in its stead proposed the compound word "ethnic group", which later prominently featured in the works of Julian Huxley and Alfred C. Haddon. Moreover, Ripley argued that Deniker's "race" idea should be denoted a "type", because it was less biologically rigid than most racial classifications.
    Ideological applications Madison Grant, creator of the "Nordic race" term
    Nordicism Joseph Deniker's contribution to racist theory was La Race nordique (the Nordic race), a generic, racial-stock descriptor, which the American eugenicist Madison Grant (1865''1937) presented as the white racial engine of world civilization. Having adopted Ripley's three-race European populace model, but disliking the "Teuton" race name, he transliterated la race nordique into "The Nordic race", the acme of the concocted racial hierarchy, based upon his racial classification theory, popular in the 1910s and 1920s.
    The State Institute for Racial Biology (Swedish: Statens Institut f¶r Rasbiologi) and its director Herman Lundborg in Sweden were active in racist research. Furthermore, much of early research on Ural-Altaic languages was coloured by attempts at justifying the view that European peoples east of Sweden were Asian and thus of an inferior race, justifying colonialism, eugenics and racial hygiene.[citation needed ] The book The Passing of the Great Race (Or, The Racial Basis of European History) by American eugenicist, lawyer, and amateur anthropologist Madison Grant was published in 1916. Though influential, the book was largely ignored when it first appeared, and it went through several revisions and editions. Nevertheless, the book was used by people who advocated restricted immigration as justification for what became known as scientific racism.[89]
    Justification of slavery in the United States In the United States, scientific racism justified Black African slavery to assuage moral opposition to the Atlantic slave trade. Alexander Thomas and Samuell Sillen described black men as uniquely fitted for bondage, because of their "primitive psychological organization."[90] In 1851, in antebellum Louisiana, the physician Samuel A. Cartwright (1793''1863) wrote of slave escape attempts as "drapetomania," a treatable mental illness, that "with proper medical advice, strictly followed, this troublesome practice that many Negroes have of running away can be almost entirely prevented." The term drapetomania (mania of the runaway slave) derives from the Greek Î´ÏÎ±ÏÎ­ÏÎ·Ï‚ (drapetes, "a runaway [slave]") and Î¼Î±Î½Î¯Î± (mania, "madness, frenzy").[91] Cartwright also described dysaesthesia aethiopica, called "rascality" by overseers. The 1840 United States Census claimed that Northern, free blacks suffered mental illness at higher rates than did their Southern, enslaved counterparts. Though the census was later found to have been severely flawed by the American Statistical Association, it became a political weapon against abolitionists. Southern slavers concluded that escaping Negroes were suffering from "mental disorders."[92]
    At the time of the American Civil War (1861''65), the matter of miscegenation prompted studies of ostensible physiological differences between Caucasians and Negroes. Early anthropologists, such as Josiah Clark Nott, George Robins Gliddon, Robert Knox, and Samuel George Morton, aimed to scientifically prove that Negroes were a human species different from the white people; that the rulers of Ancient Egypt were not African; and that mixed-race offspring (the product of miscegenation) tended to physical weakness and infertility. After the Civil War, Southern (Confederacy) physicians wrote textbooks of scientific racism based upon studies claiming that black freemen (ex-slaves) were becoming extinct, because they were inadequate to the demands of being a free man'--implying that black people benefited from enslavement.
    In Medical Apartheid, Harriet A. Washington noted the prevalence of two different views on blacks in the 19th century: the belief that they were inferior and "riddled with imperfections from head to toe", and the idea that they did not know true pain and suffering because of their primitive nervous systems (and that slavery was therefore justifiable). Washington noted the failure of scientists to accept the inconsistency between these two viewpoints, writing that:
    in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, scientific racism was simply science, and it was promulgated by the very best minds at the most prestigious institutions of the nation. Other, more logical medical theories stressed the equality of Africans and laid poor black health at the feet of their abusers, but these never enjoyed the appeal of the medical philosophy that justified slavery and, along with it, our nation's profitable way of life.[93]
    Even after the end of the Civil War, some scientists continued to justify the institution of slavery by citing the effect of topography and climate on racial development. Nathaniel Shaler, a prominent geologist at Harvard University from 1869 to 1906, published the book Man and the Earth in 1905 describing the physical geography of different continents and linking these geologic settings to the intelligence and strength of human races that inhabited these spaces. Shaler argued that North American climate and geology was ideally suited for the institution of slavery.[94]
    South African apartheid Scientific racism played a role in establishing apartheid in South Africa. In South Africa, white scientists, like Dudly Kidd, who published The essential Kafir in 1904, sought to "understand the African mind". They believed that the cultural differences between whites and blacks in South Africa might be caused by physiological differences in the brain. Rather than suggesting that Africans were "overgrown children", as early white explorers had, Kidd believed that Africans were "misgrown with a vengeance". He described Africans as at once "hopelessly deficient", yet "very shrewd".[95]
    The Carnegie Commission on the Poor White Problem in South Africa played a key role in establishing apartheid in South Africa. According to one memorandum sent to Frederick Keppel, then president of the Carnegie Corporation, there was "little doubt that if the natives were given full economic opportunity, the more competent among them would soon outstrip the less competent whites".[96] Keppel's support for the project of creating the report was motivated by his concern with the maintenance of existing racial boundaries.[96] The preoccupation of the Carnegie Corporation with the so-called poor white problem in South Africa was at least in part the outcome of similar misgivings about the state of poor whites in the southern United States.[96]
    The report was five volumes in length.[97] Around the start of the 20th century, white Americans, and whites elsewhere in the world, felt uneasy because poverty and economic depression seemed to strike people regardless of race.[97]
    Though the ground work for apartheid began earlier, the report provided support for this central idea of black inferiority. This was used to justify racial segregation and discrimination[98] in the following decades.[99] The report expressed fear about the loss of white racial pride, and in particular pointed to the danger that the poor white would not be able to resist the process of "Africanisation".[96]
    Although scientific racism played a role in justifying and supporting institutional racism in South Africa, it was not as important in South Africa as it has been in Europe and the United States. This was due in part to the "poor white problem", which raised serious questions for supremacists about white racial superiority.[95] Since poor whites were found to be in the same situation as natives in the African environment, the idea that intrinsic white superiority could overcome any environment did not seem to hold. As such, scientific justifications for racism were not as useful in South Africa.[95]
    Eugenics Stephen Jay Gould described Madison Grant's The Passing of the Great Race (1916) as "the most influential tract of American scientific racism." In the 1920s''30s, the German racial hygiene movement embraced Grant's Nordic theory. Alfred Ploetz (1860''1940) coined the term Rassenhygiene in Racial Hygiene Basics (1895), and founded the German Society for Racial Hygiene in 1905. The movement advocated selective breeding, compulsory sterilization, and a close alignment of public health with eugenics.
    Racial hygiene was historically tied to traditional notions of public health, but with emphasis on heredity'--what philosopher and historian Michel Foucault has called state racism. In 1869, Francis Galton (1822''1911) proposed the first social measures meant to preserve or enhance biological characteristics, and later coined the term "eugenics". Galton, a statistician, introduced correlation and regression analysis and discovered regression toward the mean. He was also the first to study human differences and inheritance of intelligence with statistical methods. He introduced the use of questionnaires and surveys to collect data on population sets, which he needed for genealogical and biographical works and for anthropometric studies. Galton also founded psychometrics, the science of measuring mental faculties, and differential psychology, a branch of psychology concerned with psychological differences between people rather than common traits.
    Like scientific racism, eugenics grew popular in the early 20th century, and both ideas influenced Nazi racial policies and Nazi eugenics. In 1901, Galton, Karl Pearson (1857''1936) and Walter F.R. Weldon (1860''1906) founded the Biometrika scientific journal, which promoted biometrics and statistical analysis of heredity. Charles Davenport (1866''1944) was briefly involved in the review. In Race Crossing in Jamaica (1929), he made statistical arguments that biological and cultural degradation followed white and black interbreeding. Davenport was connected to Nazi Germany before and during World War II. In 1939 he wrote a contribution to the festschrift for Otto Reche (1879''1966), who became an important figure within the plan to remove populations considered "inferior" from eastern Germany.[100]
    Interbellum to World War II Scientific racism continued through the early 20th century, and soon intelligence testing became a new source for racial comparisons. Before World War II (1939''45), scientific racism remained common to anthropology, and was used as justification for eugenics programs, compulsory sterilization, anti-miscegenation laws, and immigration restrictions in Europe and the United States. The war crimes and crimes against humanity of Nazi Germany (1933''45) discredited scientific racism in academia,[citation needed ] but racist legislation based upon it remained in some countries until the late 1960s.
    Early intelligence testing and the Immigration Act of 1924 Before the 1920s, social scientists agreed that whites were superior to blacks, but they needed a way to prove this to back social policy in favor of whites. They felt the best way to gauge this was through testing intelligence. By interpreting the tests to show favor to whites these test makers' research results portrayed all minority groups very negatively.[12][101] In 1908, Henry Goddard translated the Binet intelligence test from French and in 1912 began to apply the test to incoming immigrants on Ellis Island.[102] Some claim that in a study of immigrants Goddard reached the conclusion that 87% of Russians, 83% of Jews, 80% of Hungarians, and 79% of Italians were feeble-minded and had a mental age less than 12.[103] Some have also claimed that this information was taken as "evidence" by lawmakers and thus it affected social policy for years.[104] Bernard Davis has pointed out that, in the first sentence of his paper, Goddard wrote that the subjects of the study were not typical members of their groups but were selected because of their suspected sub-normal intelligence. Davis has further noted that Goddard argued that the low IQs of the test subjects were more likely due to environmental rather than genetic factors, and that Goddard concluded that "we may be confident that their children will be of average intelligence and if rightly brought up will be good citizens".[105] In 1996 the American Psychological Association's Board of Scientific Affairs stated that IQ tests were not discriminatory towards any ethnic/racial groups.[106]
    In his book The Mismeasure of Man, Stephen Jay Gould argued that intelligence testing results played a major role in the passage of the Immigration Act of 1924 that restricted immigration to the United States.[107] However, Mark Snyderman and Richard J. Herrnstein, after studying the Congressional Record and committee hearings related to the Immigration Act, concluded "the [intelligence] testing community did not generally view its findings as favoring restrictive immigration policies like those in the 1924 Act, and Congress took virtually no notice of intelligence testing".[108]
    Juan N. Franco contested the findings of Snyderman and Herrnstein. Franco stated that even though Snyderman and Herrnstein reported that the data collected from the results of the intelligence tests were in no way used to pass The Immigration Act of 1924, the IQ test results were still taken into consideration by legislators. As suggestive evidence, Franco pointed to the following fact: Following the passage of the immigration act, information from the 1890 census was used to set quotas based on percentages of immigrants coming from different countries. Based on these data, the legislature restricted the entrance of immigrants from southern and eastern Europe into the United States and allowed more immigrants from northern and Western Europe into the country. The use of the 1900, 1910 or 1920 census data sets would have resulted in larger numbers of immigrants from southern and eastern Europe being allowed into the U.S. However, Franco pointed out that using the 1890 census data allowed congress to exclude southern and eastern Europeans (who performed worse on IQ tests of the time than did western and northern Europeans) from the U.S. Franco argued that the work Snyderman and Herrnstein conducted on this matter neither proved or disproved that intelligence testing influenced immigration laws.[109]
    Sweden The Swedish
    State Institute for Racial Biology, founded in 1922, was the world's first government-funded institute performing research into racial biology. It was housed in what is now the Dean's house at
    Uppsala and was closed down in 1958.
    Following the creation of the first society for the promotion of racial hygiene, the German Society for Racial Hygiene in 1905'--a Swedish society was founded in 1909 as "Svenska s¤llskapet f¶r rashygien" as third in the world.[110][111] By lobbying Swedish parliamentarians and medical institutes the society managed to pass a decree creating a government run institute in the form of the Swedish State Institute for Racial Biology in 1921.[110] By 1922 the institute was built and opened in Uppsala.[110] It was the first such government-funded institute in the world performing research into "racial biology" and remains highly controversial to this day.[110][112] It was the most prominent institution for the study of "racial science" in Sweden.[113] The goal was to cure criminality, alcoholism and psychiatric problems through research in eugenics and racial hygiene.[110] As a result of the institutes work a law permitting compulsory sterilization of certain groups was enacted in Sweden in 1934.[114] The second president of the institute Gunnar Dahlberg was highly critical of the validity of the science performed at the institute and reshaped the institute toward a focus on genetics.[115] In 1958 it closed down and all remaining research was moved to the Department of medical genetics at Uppsala University.[115]
    Nazi Germany Nazi poster promoting eugenics
    The Nazi Party and its sympathizers published many books on scientific racism, seizing on the eugenicist and antisemitic ideas with which they were widely associated, although these ideas had been in circulation since the 19th century. Books such as Rassenkunde des deutschen Volkes ("Racial Science of the German People") by Hans G¼nther[116] (first published in 1922)[117] and Rasse und Seele ("Race and Soul") by Ludwig Ferdinand ClauŸ [de] [118] (published under different titles between 1926 and 1934)[119]:'Š394'Š attempted to scientifically identify differences between the German, Nordic, or Aryan people and other, supposedly inferior, groups.[citation needed ] German schools used these books as texts during the Nazi era.[120] In the early 1930s, the Nazis used racialized scientific rhetoric based on social Darwinism[citation needed ] to push its restrictive and discriminatory social policies.
    During World War II, Nazi racialist beliefs became anathema in the United States, and Boasians such as Ruth Benedict consolidated their institutional power. After the war, discovery of the Holocaust and Nazi abuses of scientific research (such as Josef Mengele's ethical violations and other war crimes revealed at the Nuremberg Trials) led most of the scientific community to repudiate scientific support for racism.
    Propaganda for the Nazi eugenics program began with propaganda for eugenic sterilization. Articles in Neues Volk described the appearance of the mentally ill and the importance of preventing such births.[121] Photographs of mentally incapacitated children were juxtaposed with those of healthy children.[122]:'Š119'Š The film Das Erbe showed conflict in nature to legitimate the Law for the Prevention of Hereditarily Diseased Offspring by sterilization.
    Although the child was "the most important treasure of the people", this did not apply to all children, even German ones, only to those with no hereditary weaknesses.[123] Nazi Germany's racially based social policies placed the improvement of the Aryan race through eugenics at the center of Nazis ideology. Those humans were targeted who were identified as "life unworthy of life" (German: Lebensunwertes Leben), including but not limited to Jewish people, criminals, degenerate, dissident, feeble-minded, homosexual, idle, insane, and the weak, for elimination from the chain of heredity.[citation needed ] Although they were still regarded as "Aryan", Nazi ideology deemed Slavs (i.e., Poles, Russians, Ukrainians, etc.) to be racially inferior to the Germanic master race, suitable for expulsion, enslavement, or even extermination.[124]:'Š180'Š
    Adolf Hitler banned intelligence quotient (IQ) testing for being "Jewish".[125]:'Š16'Š
    United States In the 20th century, concepts of scientific racism, which sought to prove the physical and mental inadequacy of groups deemed "inferior", was relied upon to justify involuntary sterilization programs.[126][127] Such programs, promoted by eugenicists such as Harry H. Laughlin, were upheld as constitutional by the U.S. Supreme Court in Buck v. Bell (1927). In all, between 60,000 and 90,000 Americans were subjected to involuntary sterilization.[126]
    Scientific racism was also used as a justification for the Emergency Quota Act of 1921 and the Immigration Act of 1924 (Johnson''Reed Act), which imposed racial quotas limiting Italian American immigration to the United States and immigration from other southern European and eastern European nations. Proponents of these quotas, who sought to block "undesirable" immigrants, justifying restrictions by invoking scientific racism.[128]
    Lothrop Stoddard published many racialist books on what he saw as the peril of immigration, his most famous being The Rising Tide of Color Against White World-Supremacy in 1920. In this book he presented a view of the world situation pertaining to race focusing concern on the coming population explosion among the "colored" peoples of the world and the way in which "white world-supremacy" was being lessened in the wake of World War I and the collapse of colonialism.
    Stoddard's analysis divided world politics and situations into "white", "yellow", "black", "Amerindian", and "brown" peoples and their interactions. Stoddard argued race and heredity were the guiding factors of history and civilization, and that the elimination or absorption of the "white" race by "colored" races would result in the destruction of Western civilization. Like Madison Grant, Stoddard divided the white race into three main divisions: Nordic, Alpine, and Mediterranean. He considered all three to be of good stock, and far above the quality of the colored races, but argued that the Nordic was the greatest of the three and needed to be preserved by way of eugenics. Unlike Grant, Stoddard was less concerned with which varieties of European people were superior to others (Nordic theory), but was more concerned with what he called "bi-racialism", seeing the world as being composed of simply "colored" and "white" races. In the years after the Great Migration and World War I, Grant's racial theory would fall out of favor in the U.S. in favor of a model closer to Stoddard's.[citation needed ]
    An influential publication was The Races of Europe (1939) by Carleton S. Coon, president of the American Association of Physical Anthropologists from 1930 to 1961. Coon was a proponent of multiregional origin of modern humans. He divided Homo sapiens into five main races: Caucasoid, Mongoloid (including Native Americans), Australoid, Congoid, and Capoid.
    Coon's school of thought was the object of increasing opposition in mainstream anthropology after World War II. Ashley Montagu was particularly vocal in denouncing Coon, especially in his Man's Most Dangerous Myth: The Fallacy of Race. By the 1960s, Coon's approach had been rendered obsolete in mainstream anthropology, but his system continued to appear in publications by his student John Lawrence Angel as late as in the 1970s.
    In the late 19th century, the Plessy v. Ferguson (1896) United States Supreme Court decision'--which upheld the constitutional legality of racial segregation under the doctrine of "separate but equal"'--was intellectually rooted in the racism of the era, as was the popular support for the decision.[129] Later, in the mid-20th century, the Supreme Court's Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka (1954) decision rejected racialist arguments about the "need" for racial segregation'--especially in public schools.
    After 1945 By 1954, 58 years after the Plessy v. Ferguson upholding of racial segregation in the United States, American popular and scholarly opinions of scientific racism and its sociologic practice had evolved.[129]
    In 1960, the journal Mankind Quarterly was founded, which is commonly described as a venue for scientific racism and white supremacy,[130][131][132] and as lacking a legitimate scholarly purpose.[133] The journal was founded in 1960, partly in response to the Supreme Court decision Brown v. Board of Education which desegregated the American public school system.[134][133]
    In April 1966, Alex Haley interviewed American Nazi Party founder George Lincoln Rockwell for Playboy. Rockwell justified his belief that blacks were inferior to whites by citing a long 1916 study by G. O. Ferguson which claimed to show that the intellectual performance of black students was correlated with their percentage of white ancestry, stating "pure negroes, negroes three-fourths pure, mulattoes and quadroons have, roughly, 60, 70, 80 and 90 percent, respectively, of white intellectual efficiency".[135] Playboy later published the interview with an editorial note claiming the study was a "discredited ... pseudoscientific rationale for racism".[136]
    International bodies such as UNESCO attempted to draft resolutions that would summarize the state of scientific knowledge about race and issued calls for the resolution of racial conflicts. In its 1950 "The Race Question", UNESCO did not reject the idea of a biological basis to racial categories,[137] but instead defined a race as: "A race, from the biological standpoint, may therefore be defined as one of the group of populations constituting the species Homo sapiens", which were broadly defined as the Caucasian, Mongoloid, Negroid races but stated that "It is now generally recognized that intelligence tests do not in themselves enable us to differentiate safely between what is due to innate capacity and what is the result of environmental influences, training and education."[138]
    Despite scientific racism being largely dismissed by the scientific community after World War II, some researchers have continued to propose theories of racial superiority in the past few decades.[139][140] These authors themselves, while seeing their work as scientific, may dispute the term racism and may prefer terms such as "race realism" or "racialism".[141] In 2018, British science journalist and author Angela Saini expressed strong concern about the return of these ideas into the mainstream.[142] Saini followed up on this idea with her 2019 book Superior: The Return of Race Science.[143]
    One such post-World War II scientific racism researcher is Arthur Jensen. His most prominent work is The g Factor: The Science of Mental Ability in which he supports the theory that black people are inherently less intelligent than whites. Jensen argues for differentiation in education based on race, stating that educators must "take full account of all the facts of [students'] nature."[144] Responses to Jensen criticized his lack of emphasis on environmental factors.[145] Psychologist Sandra Scarr describes Jensen's work as "conjur[ing] up images of blacks doomed to failure by their own inadequacies".[146]
    J. Philippe Rushton, president of the Pioneer Fund (Race, Evolution, and Behavior) and a defender of Jensen's The g Factor,[147] also has multiple publications perpetuating scientific racism. Rushton argues "race differences in brain size likely underlie their multifarious life history outcomes."[148] Rushton's theories are defended by other scientific racists such as Glayde Whitney. Whitney published works suggesting higher crime rates among people of African descent can be partially attributed to genetics.[149] Whitney draws this conclusion from data showing higher crime rates among people of African descent across different regions. Other researchers point out that proponents of a genetic crime-race link are ignoring confounding social and economic variables, drawing conclusions from correlations.[150]
    Christopher Brand was a proponent of Arthur Jensen's work on racial intelligence differences.[151] Brand's The g Factor: General Intelligence and Its Implications claims black people are intellectually inferior to whites.[152] He argues the best way to combat IQ disparities is to encourage low-IQ women to reproduce with high-IQ men.[152] He faced intense public backlash, with his work being described as a promotion of eugenics.[153] Brand's book was withdrawn by the publisher and he was dismissed from his position at the University of Edinburgh.
    Psychologist Richard Lynn has published multiple papers and a book supporting theories of scientific racism. In IQ and the Wealth of Nations, Lynn claims that national GDP is determined largely by national average IQ.[154] He draws this conclusion from the correlation between average IQ and GDP and argues low intelligence in African nations is the cause of their low levels of growth. Lynn's theory has been criticized for attributing causal relationship between correlated statistics.[155][156] Lynn supports scientific racism more directly in his 2002 paper "Skin Color and Intelligence in African Americans", where he proposes "the level of intelligence in African Americans is significantly determined by the proportion of Caucasian genes."[157] As with IQ and the Wealth of Nations, Lynn's methodology is flawed, and he purports a causal relationship from what is simply correlation.[158]
    Other prominent modern proponents of scientific racism include Charles Murray and Richard Herrnstein (The Bell Curve); and Nicholas Wade (A Troublesome Inheritance). Wade's book faced strong backlash from the scientific community, with 142 geneticists and biologists signing a letter describing Wade's work as "misappropriation of research from our field to support arguments about differences among human societies."[159]
    On June 17, 2020, Elsevier announced it was retracting an article that J. Philippe Rushton and Donald Templer had published in 2012 in the Elsevier journal Personality and Individual Differences.[160] The article falsely claimed that there was scientific evidence that skin color was related to aggression and sexuality in humans.[161]
    Clarence Gravlee writes that disparities in the incidence of such medical conditions as diabetes, stroke, cancer, and low birth weight should be viewed with a societal lens. He argues that social inequalities, not genetic differences between races, are the reason for these differences. He writes that genetic differences between different population groups are based on climate and geography, not race, and he calls for replacing incorrect biological explanations of racial disparities with an analysis of the social conditions that lead to disparate medical outcomes.[162]
    In her book Medical Apartheid[163] Harriet Washington describes the abuse of Black people in medical research and experimentation. Black people were tricked into participating in medical experiments through the use of unclear language on consent forms and a failure to list the risks and side effects of the treatment. Washington mentions that, because Black people were denied adequate health care, they were often desperate for medical help, and medical experimenters were able to exploit that need. Washington also emphasizes that when treatments were perfected and refined as a result of those experiments, Black people almost never benefited from the treatments.[164]
    Three Wayne State University School of Medicine physicians said: "The belief that differences in disease outcomes are due to genetic differences between racialized groups still plagues contemporary medicine and science and unfortunately continues to be funded, published, taught, and practiced."[165]
    See also References ^ "Ostensibly scientific": cf. Theodore M. Porter, Dorothy Ross (eds.) 2003. The Cambridge History of Science: Volume 7, The Modern Social Sciences Cambridge University Press, p. 293 "Race has long played a powerful popular role in explaining social and cultural traits, often in ostensibly scientific terms"; Adam Kuper, Jessica Kuper (eds.), The Social Science Encyclopedia (1996), "Racism", p. 716: "This [sc. scientific] racism entailed the use of 'scientific techniques', to sanction the belief in European and American racial Superiority"; Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Questions to Sociobiology (1998), "Race, theories of", p. 18: "Its exponents [sc. of scientific racism] tended to equate race with species and claimed that it constituted a scientific explanation of human history"; Terry Jay Ellingson, The myth of the noble savage (2001), 147ff. "In scientific racism, the racism was never very scientific; nor, it could at least be argued, was whatever met the qualifications of actual science ever very racist" (p. 151); Paul A. Erickson, Liam D. Murphy, A History of Anthropological Theory (2008), p. 152: "Scientific racism: Improper or incorrect science that actively or passively supports racism". ^ a b Gould 1981, pp. 28''29. "Few tragedies can be more extensive than the stunting of life, few injustices deeper than the denial of an opportunity to strive or even to hope, by a limit imposed from without, but falsely identified as lying within." ^ a b Kurtz, Paul (September 2004). "Can the Sciences Help Us to Make Wise Ethical Judgments?". Skeptical Inquirer. Archived from the original on November 23, 2007 . Retrieved December 1, 2007 . There have been abundant illustrations of pseudoscientific theories-monocausal theories of human behavior that were hailed as "scientific"-that have been applied with disastrous results. Examples: ... Many racists today point to IQ to justify a menial role for blacks in society and their opposition to affirmative action. ^ Kaldis, Byron, ed. (2013). Encyclopedia of Philosophy and the Social Sciences. SAGE Publications. p. 779. ISBN 9781452276045. ^ Templeton, A. (2016). EVOLUTION AND NOTIONS OF HUMAN RACE. In Losos J. & Lenski R. (Eds.), How Evolution Shapes Our Lives: Essays on Biology and Society (pp. 346''361). Princeton; Oxford: Princeton University Press. doi:10.2307/j.ctv7h0s6j.26. That this view reflects the consensus among American anthropologists is stated in: Wagner, Jennifer K.; Yu, Joon-Ho; Ifekwunigwe, Jayne O.; Harrell, Tanya M.; Bamshad, Michael J.; Royal, Charmaine D. (February 2017). "Anthropologists' views on race, ancestry, and genetics". American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 162 (2): 318''327. doi:10.1002/ajpa.23120. PMC 5299519 . PMID 27874171. See also: American Association of Physical Anthropologists (March 27, 2019). "AAPA Statement on Race and Racism". American Association of Physical Anthropologists . Retrieved June 19, 2020 . ^ Cf. Patricia Hill Collins, Black feminist thought: knowledge, consciousness, and the politics of empowerment (2nd ed., 2000), Glossary, p. 300: "Scientific racism was designed to prove the inferiority of people of color"; Simon During, Cultural studies: a critical introduction (2005), p. 163: "It [sc. scientific racism] became such a powerful idea because ... it helped legitimate the domination of the globe by whites"; David Brown and Clive Webb, Race in the American South: From Slavery to Civil Rights (2007), p. 75: "...the idea of a hierarchy of races was driven by an influential, secular, scientific discourse in the second half of the eighteenth century and was rapidly disseminated during the nineteenth century". ^ UNESCO, The Race Question, p. 8 ^ Gannon, Megan (February 5, 2016). "Race Is a Social Construct, Scientists Argue". Scientific American . Retrieved December 25, 2018 . ^ Daley, C. E.; Onwuegbuzie, A. J. (2011). "Race and Intelligence". In Sternberg, R.; Kaufman, S. B. (eds.). The Cambridge Handbook of Intelligence. Cambridge New York: Cambridge University Press. pp. 293''306. ISBN 9780521518062. ^ Diana Smay, George Armelagos (2000). "Galileo wept: A critical assessment of the use of race in forensic anthropolopy" (PDF) . Transforming Anthropology. 9 (2): 22''24. doi:10.1525/tran.2000.9.2.19 . Retrieved July 13, 2016 . ^ Rotimi, Charles N. (2004). "Are medical and nonmedical uses of large-scale genomic markers conflating genetics and 'race'?". Nature Genetics. 36 (11 Suppl): 43''47. doi:10.1038/ng1439 . PMID 15508002. Two facts are relevant: (i) as a result of different evolutionary forces, including natural selection, there are geographical patterns of genetic variations that correspond, for the most part, to continental origin; and (ii) observed patterns of geographical differences in genetic information do not correspond to our notion of social identities, including 'race' and 'ethnicity ^ a b Tucker 2007 ^ a b Jen E. Boyle (2010), "Anamorphosis in Early Modern Literature: Mediation and Affect", Ashgate, p. 74 ^ Fran§ois Bernier, "A New Division of the Earth" from Journal des Scavans, 24 April 1684. Translated by T. Bendyshe in Memoirs Read Before the Anthropological Society of London, vol. 1, 1863''64, pp. 360''64. ^ a b c Joan-Pau Rubi(C)s, Race, climate and civilization in the works of Fran§ois Bernier>>, L'inde des Lumi¨res. Discours, histoire, savoirs (XVIIe-XIXe si¨cle), Purushartha 31, Par­s, ‰ditions de l'EHESSS, 2013, pp. 53''78. ^ a b c Stuurman, S. (2000), "Fran§ois Bernier and the invention of racial classification", History Workshop Journal, 50, pp. 1''21. ^ French introduction by France Bhattacharya to an edition of Voyage dans les Etats du Grand Mogol (Paris: Fayard, 1981). ^ Robert Boyle (1664), "Experiments and Considerations Touching Colours", Henry Herringman, London, pp. 160''61 ^ Palmeri, Frank (2006). Humans And Other Animals in Eighteenth-Century British Culture: Representation, Hybridity, Ethics. pp. 49''67. ^ Staffan M¼ller-Wille (2014). "Linnaeus and the Four Corners of the World". The Cultural Politics of Blood, 1500''1900. pp. 191''209. doi:10.1057/9781137338211_10. hdl:10871/16833. ISBN 978-1-349-46395-4. ^ a b Jackson & Weidman 2005, pp. 39''41 ^ Initially, Linnaeus had only described four categories: Europ...us albesc[ens], Americanus rubesc[ens], Asiaticus fuscus, & Africanus nigr[iculus](Note the color references were whitish, reddish, and blackish, in difference to later editions white, red and black). Only later editions included the "Monstrosus". ^ Linnaeus did not use the term "race." He used the term "Homo variat", as can be seen in Systema naturae, p. 34. ^ Gloria Ramon (2002), "Race: Social Concept, Biological Idea" ^ Linnaeus used the Latin term: diurnus, varians cultura, loco: Systema Naturae, 13th edition, p. 29 ^ In latin: rufus, cholericus, rectus. Pilis: nigris, rectis, crassis. Naribus: Patulis. Facie: ephelitica. Mento: subimberbi. Pertinax, contentus, liber. Pingit: Se lineis daedaleis rubris. Regitur Consuetudine. ^ In latin: albus, sanguineus, torosus. Pilis flavescentibus, prolixis. Oculis caeruleis. Levis, argutus, inventor. Tegitur Vestimentis arctis. Regitur Ritibus. ^ In latin: luridus, melancholicus, rigidus. Pilis nigricantibus. Oculis fuscis. Severus, fastuosus, avarus. Tegitur Indumentis laxis. Regitur Opinionibus. ^ In latin: niger, phlegmaticus, laxus. Pilis atris, contortuplicatis. Cute holosericea. Naso simo. Labiis tumidis. Feminis sinus pudoris. Mammae lactantes prolixae. Vafer, segnis, negligens. Ungit se pingui. Regitur Arbitrio. ^ Schiebinger, Londa. "Taxonomy for Human Beings" (PDF) . ^ "Linnaeus and Race". The Linnean Society . Retrieved May 5, 2023 . ^ "The Geometer of Race". Discover Magazine . Retrieved May 5, 2023 . ^ Reid, Gordon McGregor (2009). "Carolus Linnaeus (1707''1778): His Life, Philosophy and Science and Its Relationship to Modern Biology and Medicine". Taxon. 58 (1): 18''31. doi:10.1002/tax.581005. JSTOR 27756820. ^ Renato G Mazzolini '' Skin Color and the Origin of Physical Anthropology. in: Reproduction, Race, and Gender in Philosophy and the Early Life Sciences. Ed. Susanne Lettow. 2014 ^ Conrad B. Quintyn (2010), "The Existence Or Non-existence of Race?, Teneo Press p.17 ^ Kenneth A.R. Kennedy (1976), "Human Variation in Space and Time". Wm. C. Brown Company, p. 25. Kennedy writes that while "Linnaeus was the first to use biological traits as a basis for further subdivisions of the species into varieties. It would be unfair to ascribe racist motives to this effort." ^ Gould 1981, p. 67 ^ Rachel N. Hastings (2008), "Black Eyez: Memoirs of a Revolutionary", p. 17 ^ Gould, Stephen Jay (November 1994). "The Geometer of Race". Discover. pp. 65''69. ISSN 0274-7529. ^ Mary J. Morris & Leonie Berwick (2008), The Linnaean Legacy: Three Centuries after his birth Archived 2013-05-13 at the Wayback Machine, A forum for natural history. The Linnean Special Issue No. 8. Linnean Society of London, Burlington House, Piccadilly, London. Was Linnaeus a racist?, p. 25 ^ a b Montagu, A. (2001 edition) Man's Most Dangerous Myth: The Fallacy of Race. New York: Columbia University Press, p. 69. ^ Buffon, trans. Barr, (1807) Natural History, General and Particular, volume 4, p.191 ^ Stanley A. Rice (2009), "Encyclopedia of Evolution", Infobase Publishing, p. 195. Stanley states: "Even though the prejudice and racism of the attributes are obvious to modern scientists, Linnaeus did not apparently mean to imply a hierarchy of humanness or superiority." ^ Harris 2001, p. 85 ^ a b c d e f g h Harris, Marvin (2001) [1968]. The Rise of Anthropological Theory: A History of Theories of Culture (Updated ed.). Walnut Creek, California: AltaMira Press. pp. 84''87, 110''111. ISBN 978-0-7591-1699-3. ^ Emmanuel Chukwudi Eze, Race and the Enlightenment: A Reader, 1997, p. 84 ^ Rush, Benjamin (1799). "Observations Intended to Favour a Supposition That the Black Color (As It Is Called) of the Negroes Is Derived from the Leprosy". Transactions of the American Philosophical Society 4. ^ Isaac 2004, p. 150 ^ a b c Das Gupta, Tania (2007). Race and Racialization: Essential Readings. pp. 25''26. ^ "Thomas Jefferson, Scientist". Journal of the American Revolution. August 20, 2015 . Retrieved September 2, 2020 . ^ "Thomas Jefferson: Founding Father of Science | RealClearScience". www.realclearscience.com . Retrieved September 2, 2020 . ^ Garrod, Joel Z. (2006). "A Brave Old World: An Analysis of Scientific Racism and BiDil". McGill Journal of Medicine. 9 (1): 54''60. PMC 2687899 . PMID 19529811. ^ Paul Finkelman (November 12, 2012). "The Monster of Monticello". The New York Times. ^ Thomas Jefferson, Notes on the State of Virginia ^ (Jefferson's Letter to Benjamin Banneker, August 30, 1791. Original source: The Papers of Thomas Jefferson, vol 22, August 6, 1791 '' December 31, 1791, ed. Charles T. Cullen. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1986, pp. 49''54.) ^ Harris 2001, p. 87 ^ Georges Cuvier, Tableau elementaire de l'histoire naturelle des animaux (Paris, 1798) p. 71 ^ Georges Cuvier, The Animal Kingdom: Arranged in Conformity with its Organization, Translated from the French by H.M. Murtrie, p. 50. ^ Jackson & Weidman 2005, pp. 41''42 ^ Colin Kidd, The Forging of Races: Race and Scripture in the Protestant Atlantic World, 1600''2000, 2006, p. 28 ^ Tiedemann, Friedrich (1836). "On the Brain of the Negro, Compared with that of the European and the Orang-outang" (PDF) . Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. 126: 497''527. Bibcode:1836RSPT..126..497T. doi:10.1098/rstl.1836.0025 . S2CID 115347088. ^ Schopenhauer, Parerga and Paralipomena: Short Philosophical Essays, Volume II, Section 92 ^ Gustav Jahoda, Images of Savages: Ancients [sic] Roots of Modern Prejudice in Western Culture, 1999, p. 82 ^ a b Price, R.G. (June 24, 2006). "The Mis-portrayal of Darwin as a Racist". rationalrevolution.net . Retrieved January 6, 2008 . ^ D'Souza, Dinesh "Is Racism a Western Idea?" pp. 517''39 from The American Scholar, Vol. 64, No. 4 Autumn 1995, p.538 ^ A. J. Woodman, 2009, The Cambridge Companion to Tacitus, p. 294. (The Germanic race was also regarded by Gobineau as beautiful, honourable and destined to rule: 'cette illustre famille humaine, la plus noble'. While arya was originally an endonym used only by Indo-Iranians, "Aryan" became, partly because of the Essai a racial designation of a race, which Gobineau specified as 'la race germanique'. ^ a b Gustav Jahoda, Images of Savages: Ancients [sic] Roots of Modern Prejudice in Western Culture, 1999, p. 83 ^ Jackson & Weidman 2005, p. 69 ^ "It may be doubted whether any character can be named which is distinctive of a race and is constant... they graduate into each other, and.. it is hardly possible to discover clear distinctive characters between them... As it is improbable that the numerous and unimportant points of resemblance between the several races of man in bodily structure and mental faculties (I do not here refer to similar customs) should all have been independently acquired, they must have been inherited from progenitors who had these same characters.", Charles Darwin, The Descent of Man p. 225 onwards. ^ Hofstadter, Richard (1992). Social Darwinism in American Thought. Beacon Press. pp. 172''173. ISBN 978-0807055038. ^ Himmelfarb, Gertrude (1959). Darwin and the Darwinian Revolution. ISBN 978-1566631068. ^ Bannister, Robert C. (1979). Social Darwinism: Science and Myth in Anglo-American Social Thought. Temple University Press. p. 184. ISBN 978-0877221555. ^ Jackson & Weidman 2005, p. 87 ^ Palmer, Douglas (2006). Prehistoric Past Revealed: The Four Billion Year History of Life on Earth. Berkeley: University of California Press. p. 43. ISBN 978-0520248274. ^ Regal, Brian (2004). Human Evolution: A Guide to the Debates. 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"Intelligence Tests and the Immigration Act of 1924". American Psychologist. 38 (9): 986''95. doi:10.1037/0003-066x.38.9.986. ^ Franco, J.N. (1985). "Intelligence tests and social policy". Journal of Counseling and Development. 64 (4): 278''9. doi:10.1002/j.1556-6676.1985.tb01101.x. ^ a b c d e "En meningsl¶s sortering av m¤nniskor". Forskning & Framsteg . Retrieved November 7, 2016 . ^ Bj¶rkman, Maria; Widmalm, Sven (December 20, 2010). "Selling eugenics: the case of Sweden". Notes and Records of the Royal Society. 64 (4): 379''400. doi:10.1098/rsnr.2010.0009 . ISSN 0035-9149. PMID 21553636. ^ Ambrosiani, Aron (2009). Rektor Lennmalms f¶rslag '' Om 1918''1921 ¥rs diskussioner kring ett Nobelinstitut i rasbiologi vid Karolinska institutet (PDF) . Nobel Museum Occasional Papers. p. 4. ^ Ericsson, Martin (June 30, 2020). "What happened to 'race' in race biology? The Swedish State Institute for Race Biology, 1936''1960". Scandinavian Journal of History: 1''24. doi:10.1080/03468755.2020.1778520 . ISSN 0346-8755. ^ "Kapitel 3: Rasbiologin i Sverige". Forum f¶r levande historia . Retrieved November 7, 2016 . ^ a b "Rasbiologiska institutet '' Uppsala universitetsbibliotek '' Uppsala universitet". ub.uu.se . Retrieved November 7, 2016 . ^ G¼nther, Hans F. K. (1930). Rassenkunde des deutschen Volkes [Racial Science of the German People] (in German). M¼nchen: J. F. Lehmann. ^ Maxwell, Anne (2010). Picture Imperfect: Photography and Eugenics, 1870''1940. Sussex Academic Press. p. 150. ISBN 9781845194154. ^ ClauŸ, Ludwig Ferdinand (1926). Rasse und Seele: Eine Einf¼hrung in die Gegenwart [Race and Soul: An Introduction to the Contemporary World]. M¼nchen: J. F. Lehmann. ^ Gray, Richard T. (2004). "Learning to See (Race): Ludwig Ferdinand Clauss's Racial Psychology as Applied Phenomenology". About Face: German Physiognomic Thought from Lavater to Auschwitz. Wayne State University Press. pp. 273''332, 393''396. ISBN 9780814331798. Rasse und Seele has a curious publication history. The first edition appeared under this title in 1926 with the subtitle "Eine Einf¼hrung in die Gegenwart" (An Introduction to the contemporary world). A second, heavily revised edition appeared in 1929 under an entirely different title, Von Seele und Antlitz der Rassen und V¶lker (On the soul and face of races and nations). A third revised edition, which returned to the original title Rasse und Seele, was published in 1934, this time with the subtitle of "Eine Einf¼hrung in den Sinn der leiblichen Gestalt" (An introduction to the meaning of somatic form), and this latter edition remained the basis for all subsequent printings ... [t]he content of the three books is similar, though the various editions tend to organize this material in very different ways. ^ Smith, Justin E. H. (2015). "The Nature of Science and the Nature of Philosophy". Nature, Human Nature, and Human Difference. Princeton University Press. pp. 10''15. ISBN 978-1400866311. ^ Rodenfels, H. (2007) [Published in German in May 1939]. "Frauen, die nicht Mutter werden d¼rfen" [Women Who May Not Be Allowed to become Mothers]. Neues Volk. Vol. 7. Translated by Bytwerk, Randall. pp. 16''21 '' via German Propaganda Archive. ^ Koonz, Claudia (2003). "Ethnic Revival and Racist Anxiety". The Nazi Conscience. Harvard University Press. pp. 103''130. ISBN 9780674011724. ^ Nicholas, Lynn H. (2006). Cruel World: The Children of Europe in the Nazi Web. Vintage Books. p. 6. ISBN 9780679776635. ^ Mineau, Andr(C) (2004). "Conclusion: Anthropology and the Peculiarities of the East". Operation Barbarossa: Ideology and Ethics against Human Dignity. Rodopi. pp. 180''182. ISBN 9789042016330. ^ Eysenck, Hans J¼rgen; Fulker, David W. (1979). "Intelligence: The Development of a Concept". The Structure & Measurement of Intelligence. Die Naturwissenschaften. Vol. 68. New Brunswick: Transaction Publishers. pp. 8''31. doi:10.1007/bf00365371. ISBN 9781412839235. PMID 7300910. S2CID 7319985. ^ a b Jackson & Weidman 2005, p. 119 ^ Juliet Hooker, Theorizing Race in the Americas: Douglass, Sarmiento, Du Bois, and Vasconcelos (Oxford University Press, 2017), pp. 9''10. ^ Christa Wirth, Memories of Belonging: Descendants of Italian Migrants to the United States, 1884''Present (Brill Publishers, 2015), pp. 190, 198. ^ a b Sarat, Austin (1997). Race, Law, and Culture: Reflections on Brown v. Board of Education. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 55, 59. ISBN 978-0195106220. ^ Winston, Andrew S. (May 29, 2020). "Scientific Racism and North American Psychology". Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Psychology. Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Psychology. doi:10.1093/acrefore/9780190236557.013.516. ISBN 978-0-19-023655-7. ^ Gresson, Aaron; Kincheloe, Joe L.; Steinberg, Shirley R., eds. (March 14, 1997). Measured Lies: The Bell Curve Examined (1st St. Martin's Griffin ed.). St. Martin's Press. p. 39. ISBN 978-0-312-17228-2. ^ William H. Tucker, The funding of scientific racism: Wickliffe Draper and the Pioneer Fund, University of Illinois Press, 2002, p. 2. ^ a b Jackson, John; McCarthy, John P. Jr (2005). Science for Segregation: Race, Law, and the Case against Brown v. Board of Education. New York: New York University Press. p. 148''. ISBN 978-0814742716. ^ Schaffer 2007, pp. 253''78 ^ Ferguson, G.O. (April 1916). "The Psychology of the Negro". Archives of Psychology. 36: 125. ^ Haley, Alex (April 1966). "Interview: George Lincoln Rockwell". Playboy. ^ Banton, Michael (2008). "Race, Unesco statements on". In Schaefer, Richard T. (ed.). Encyclopedia of Race, Ethnicity and Society. Sage. pp. 1096, 1098. ISBN 978-1412926942. ^ The Race Question. France: UNESCO publication. 1950. ^ "9. Challenges to the Race Concept", Race Unmasked, Columbia University Press, January 31, 2014, doi:10.7312/yude16874-011, ISBN 978-0-231-53799-5 ^ Sussman, Robert Wald (January 31, 2014). The Myth of Race. Cambridge, MA and London, England: Harvard University Press. doi:10.4159/harvard.9780674736160. ISBN 978-0-674-73616-0. ^ Rushton, J. Philippe; Jensen, Arthur R. (2005). "Wanted: More race realism, less moralistic fallacy". Psychology, Public Policy, and Law. 11 (2): 328''36. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.521.5570 . doi:10.1037/1076-8971.11.2.328. ^ Angela Saini (January 22, 2018). "Racism is creeping back into mainstream science '' we have to stop it". Guardian. ^ Jess Kung (July 10, 2019). "Is 'Race Science' Making A Comeback?". NPR. ^ Jensen, Arthur R. (1968). "Social Class, Race, and Genetics: Implications for Education". American Educational Research Journal. 5 (1): 1''42. doi:10.3102/00028312005001001. ISSN 0002-8312. S2CID 38402369. ^ Sanday, Peggy R. (1972). "An Alternative Interpretation of the Relationship between Heredity, Race, Environment, and IQ". The Phi Delta Kappan. 54: 250''254 '' via JSTOR. ^ Scarr, Sandra (1981). "Implicit Messages: A Review of "Bias in Mental Testing"Bias in Mental Testing. Arthur R. Jensen". American Journal of Education. 89 (3): 330''338. doi:10.1086/443584. ISSN 0195-6744. S2CID 147214993. ^ "Outstanding Synthesis of Current Work on IQ". www.amazon.com . Retrieved April 29, 2020 . ^ Rushston, J Philippe (2001). "Genes, Brains, and Culture: Returning to a Darwinian Evolutionary Psychology". Behavior and Philosophy. 29: 95''99. ^ Rushton, J. Philippe; Whitney, Glayde (2002). "Cross-National Variation in Violent Crime Rates: Race, r-K Theory, and Income". Population and Environment. 23 (6): 501''511. doi:10.1023/a:1016335501805. S2CID 16276258 '' via JSTOR. ^ Powledge, Tabitha M. (1996). "Genetics and the Control of Crime". BioScience. 46 (1): 7''10. doi:10.2307/1312648 . ISSN 0006-3568. JSTOR 1312648. ^ Brand, Chris (2003). "IQ guru talks to Skeptic magazine? Given the chance to explain how he chose to endure denunciation for 'fascism', psychologist Arthur Jensen holds his peace". Heredity. 90 (5): 346''347. doi:10.1038/sj.hdy.6800226 . ISSN 1365-2540. ^ a b Brand, Christopher (1996). "3". The g Factor: General Intelligence and Its Implications. ^ Kerr, Anne; Cunningham-Burley, Sarah; Amos, Amanda (1998). "Eugenics and the New Genetics in Britain: Examining Contemporary Professionals' Accounts". Science, Technology, & Human Values. 23 (2): 175''198. doi:10.1177/016224399802300202. ISSN 0162-2439. PMID 11656684. S2CID 20393035. ^ Lynn, Richard (2002). IQ and the wealth of nations. Praeger. ISBN 0-275-97510-X. OCLC 928425551. ^ Volken, T. (September 1, 2003). "IQ and the Wealth of Nations. A Critique of Richard Lynn and Tatu Vanhanen's Recent Book". European Sociological Review. 19 (4): 411''412. doi:10.1093/esr/19.4.411. ISSN 0266-7215. ^ MORSE, STEPHEN (2008). "The geography of tyranny and despair: development indicators and the hypothesis of genetic inevitability of national inequality" (PDF) . Geographical Journal. 174 (3): 195''206. doi:10.1111/j.1475-4959.2008.00296.x . ISSN 0016-7398. ^ Lynn, Richard (2002). "Skin Color and Intelligence in African Americans". Population and Environment. 23 (4): 365''375. doi:10.1023/a:1014572602343. ISSN 0199-0039. S2CID 145386366. ^ Hill, Mark E. (2002). "Skin Color and Intelligence in African Americans: A Reanalysis of Lynn's Data". Population and Environment. 24 (2): 209''214. doi:10.1023/a:1020704322510. ISSN 0199-0039. S2CID 141143755. ^ "Letters: "A Troublesome Inheritance" | Stanford Center for Computational, Evolutionary, and Human Genomics". cehg.stanford.edu . Retrieved April 29, 2020 . ^ "Personality and Individual Differences Retracts Rushton and Templer Article" . Retrieved June 19, 2020 . ^ "Elsevier journal to retract 2012 paper widely derided as racist". June 17, 2020 . Retrieved June 19, 2020 . ^ Gravlee CC. How race becomes biology: embodiment of social inequality. Am J Phys Anthropol. 2009 May;139(1):47''57. doi: 10.1002/ajpa.20983. PMID 19226645. ^ Washington, Harriet (2007). Medical Apartheid: The Dark History of Medical Experimentation on Black Americans from Colonial Times to the Present. Doubleday. ISBN 978-0767915472. ^ Mills, Malcolm. The Journal of African American History, vol. 94, no. 1, [The University of Chicago Press, Association for the Study of African American Life and History], 2009, pp. 101''03, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25610054. ^ Opara, Ijeoma Nnodim; Riddle-Jones, Latonya; Allen, Nakia (January 1, 2022). "Modern Day Drapetomania: Calling Out Scientific Racism". Journal of General Internal Medicine. 37 (1): 225''226. doi:10.1007/s11606-021-07163-z. ISSN 1525-1497. PMC 8513734 . PMID 34647230. Bibliography Ass(C)o, Henriette; Fings, Karola; Sparing, Frank; Kenrick, Donald; Heuss, Herbert (1997). From "race science" to the camps. The Gypsies During the Second World War. Vol. 1. Hatfield: University of Hertfordshire Press. ISBN 978-0900458781. Barkan, Elazar (1992). The Retreat of Scientific Racism: Changing Concepts of Race in Britain and the United States between the World Wars. New York: Cambridge University Press. Biddiss, Michael D. (1970). Father of Racist Ideology: The Social and Political Thought of Count Gobineau . New York: Weybright and Talley. Dennis, Rutledge M. (1995). "Social Darwinism, scientific racism, and the metaphysics of race". Journal of Negro Education. 64 (3): 243''52. doi:10.2307/2967206. JSTOR 2967206. Detterman, Douglas K. 2006. "Intelligence." Microsoft Student 2007 DVD. Redmond, WA: Microsoft Corporation.Efron, John M. (1994). Defenders of the race: Jewish doctors and race science in fin-de-si¨cle Europe. New Haven CT: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0300054408. Ehrenreich, Eric (2007). The Nazi ancestral proof: genealogy, racial science, and the final solution. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0253349453. Ewen, Stuart; Ewen, Elizabeth (2007). Typecasting: On the Arts and Sciences of Human Inequality. New York: Seven Stories Press. ISBN 978-1-58322-776-3. Gould, Stephen Jay (1981). The Mismeasure of Man. New York: W W Norton and Co. ISBN 978-0-393-01489-1. Gross, Paul R.; Levitt, Norman Jay (1994). Higher Superstition: The Academic Left and Its Quarrels With Science. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 978-0-8018-4766-0. Hecht, Jennifer Michael (2003). The end of the soul: scientific modernity, atheism, and anthropology in France. New York: Columbia University Press. p. 171. ISBN 978-0231128469. OCLC 53118940. Higgins, A.C. n.d. "Scientific Racism: A Review of The Science and Politics of Racial Research by William H. Tucker". Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1994. Accessed October 21, 2007.Isaac, Benjamin H. (2004). The Invention of Racism in Classical Antiquity. Princeton NJ: Princeton University Press. Jackson, John P.; Weidman, Nadine M. (2005). Race, Racism, and Science: Social Impact and Interaction. Rutgers University Press. K¼hl, Stefan (1994). The Nazi Connection: Eugenics, American Racism, and German National Socialism. New York: Oxford University Press. Lombardo, Paul A. (2002). " 'The American Breed': Nazi Eugenics and the Origins of the Pioneer Fund". Albany Law Review. 65 (3): 743''830. PMID 11998853. Mintz, Frank P. (1985). The Liberty Lobby and the American Right: Race, Conspiracy, and Culture. Westport CT: Greenwood. Murray, Charles (September 2005). "The Inequality Taboo". Commentary Magazine. Archived from the original on September 24, 2005. Poliakov, Leon (1974). Aryan Myth: A History of Racist and Nationalist Ideas in Europe. New York: Basic Books. Proctor, Robert N. (1988). Racial Hygiene: Medicine under the Nazis . Cambridge: Harvard University Press. Sapp, Jan (1987). Beyond the gene: cytoplasmic inheritance and the struggle for authority in genetics. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0195042061. Schaffer, Gavin (2007). ""'Scientific' Racism Again?": Reginald Gates, the Mankind Quarterly and the Question of "Race" in Science after the Second World War". Journal of American Studies. 41 (2): 253''78. doi:10.1017/S0021875807003477. S2CID 145322934. Taguieff, Pierre-Andr(C) (1987). La Force du pr(C)jug(C). Essai sur le racisme et ses doubles (in French). Paris: Gallimard, La D(C)couverte. ISBN 978-2070719778. Tucker, William H. (2007). The funding of Scientific Racism: Wickliffe Draper and the Pioneer Fund. University of Illinois Press. ISBN 9780252074639. Jackson, J. (2004). "Racially stuffed shirts and other enemies of mankind: Horace Mann Bond's parody of segregationist psychology in the 1950s". In Winston, A. (ed.). Defining difference: Race and Racism in the History of Psychology. Washington DC: American Psychological Association. pp. 261''283. Neisser, U.; Boodoo, G.; Bouchard, T.J. Jr.; Boykin, A.W.; Brody, N.; Ceci, S.J.; et al. (1996). "Intelligence: Knowns and unknowns" (PDF) . American Psychologist. 51 (2): 77''101. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.51.2.77. Richards, G. (1997). Race, Racism, and Psychology: Towards a Reflexive History. New York: Routledge. Shultz, D.P.; Shultz, S.E. (2008). A History of Modern Psychology (9th ed.). Belmont CA: Thomson Higher Education. Trautmann, Thomas R. (1997), Aryans and British India, Vistaar Tucker, W.H. (1994). The Science and Politics of Racial Research. Urbana: University of Illinois Press. Walsh, Judith E. (2011), A Brief History of India , Facts On File, ISBN 978-0816081431 Further reading Alexander, Nathan G. (2019). Race in a Godless World: Atheism, Race, and Civilization, 1850''1914. New York/Manchester: New York University Press/Manchester University Press. ISBN 978-1526142375.Condit, Celeste M. (2010). Rhetorical Engagements in the Scientist's Process of Remaking Race as Genetic. The University of South Carolina Press. ISBN 978-1299241091. Fredrickson, George M. (2002). Racism: A Short History. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-00899-8. Redman, Samuel J. (2016). Bone Rooms: From Scientific Racism to Human Prehistory in Museums. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0674660410. Saini, Angela (2019). Superior: The Return of Race Science. Beacon Press. ISBN 978-0008341008. Spiro, Jonathan P. (2009). Defending the Master Race: Conservation, Eugenics, and the Legacy of Madison Grant. University of Vermont Press. ISBN 978-1584657156. External links "Race, Evolution and the Science of Human Origins" by Allison Hopper, Scientific American (July 5, 2021).Fact Sheet on Eugenics and Scientific Racism from the National Human Genome Research InstituteScientific racism, history of at Encyclopedia.com (Cengage)The Mis-portrayal of Darwin as a Racist '' Refutes claims that Darwin was a racist or that his views inspired the NazisPurves D; Augustine GJ; Fitzpatrick D; et al., eds. (2001). "Box D. Brain Size and Intelligence". Neuroscience (2nd ed.). Sunderland, MA: Sinauer Associates. Reviews of Race: The Reality of Human DifferencesRaceSci: History of Race in ScienceGardner, Dan. Race Science: When Racial Categories Make No Sense. The Globe and Mail, October 27, 1995.Institute for the study of academic racism (ISAR)Race, Science, and Social Policy. From Race: The Power of an Illusion. PBS."How Can We Curb the Spread of Scientific Racism?" a review of Superior: The Return of Race Science by Angela SainiBall, Philip (June 9, 2021). "The unwelcome revival of 'race science': 20 years after the human genome was first sequenced, dangerous gene myths abound". The Guardian. The Asian/Pacific/American Institute at New York University's Timeline of Scientific Racism, [1]
  Madison Grant - Wikipedia
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    American eugenicist, conservationist, and author (1865''1937)
    Madison Grant
    Grant in the early 1920s
    Born ( 1865-11-19 ) November 19, 1865New York City, U.S.
    DiedMay 30, 1937 (1937-05-30) (aged 71)New York City, U.S.
    Resting placeSleepy Hollow Cemetery in Tarrytown, New YorkNationalityAmericanAlma materColumbia UniversityYale UniversityOccupation(s)Lawyer, writer, zoologistKnown forEugenics, Scientific racism, The Passing of the Great Race, NordicismMadison Grant (November 19, 1865 '' May 30, 1937) was an American lawyer, zoologist, anthropologist, and writer known for his work as a conservationist, eugenicist, and advocate of scientific racism. Grant is less noted for his far-reaching achievements in conservation than for his advocacy of Nordicism, a form of racism which views the "Nordic race" as superior.[1][2]
    As a eugenicist, Grant was the author of The Passing of the Great Race (1916), one of the most famous racist texts,[3] and played an active role in crafting immigration restriction and anti-miscegenation laws in the United States. As a conservationist, he is credited with the saving of species including the American bison, helped create the Bronx Zoo, Glacier National Park, and Denali National Park, and co-founded the Save the Redwoods League.[5] Grant developed much of the discipline of wildlife management.
    Early life [ edit ] Grant was born in New York City, New York, the son of Gabriel Grant, a physician and American Civil War surgeon, and Caroline Manice. Madison Grant's mother was a descendant of Jess(C) de Forest, the Walloon Huguenot who in 1623 recruited the first band of colonists to settle in New Netherland, the Dutch Republic's territory on the American East Coast. On his father's side, Madison Grant's first American ancestor was Richard Treat, dean of Pitminster Church in England, who in 1630 was one of the first Puritan settlers of New England. Grant's forebears through Treat's line include Robert Treat (a colonial governor of New Jersey), Robert Treat Paine (a signer of the Declaration of Independence), Charles Grant (Madison Grant's grandfather, who served as an officer in the War of 1812), and Gabriel Grant (father of Madison), a prominent physician and the health commissioner of Newark, New Jersey.[7][9] Grant was a lifelong resident of New York City.
    Grant was the oldest of four siblings. The children's summers, and many of their weekends, were spent at Oatlands, the Long Island country estate built by their grandfather DeForest Manice in the 1830s. As a child, he attended private schools and traveled Europe and the Middle East with his father. He attended Yale University, graduating early and with honors in 1887. He received a law degree from Columbia Law School, and practiced law after graduation; however, his interests were primarily those of a naturalist. He never married and had no children. He first achieved a political reputation when he and his brother, De Forest Grant, took part in the 1894 electoral campaign of New York mayor William Lafayette Strong.
    Conservation efforts [ edit ] Thomas C. Leonard wrote that "Grant was a cofounder of the American environmental movement, a crusading conservationist who preserved the California redwoods; saved the American bison from extinction; fought for stricter gun control laws; helped create Glacier and Denali national parks; and worked to preserve whales, bald eagles, and pronghorn antelopes."[11]
    Grant was a friend of several U.S. presidents, including Theodore Roosevelt and Herbert Hoover.[citation needed ] He is credited with saving many species from extinction, and co-founded the Save the Redwoods League with Frederick Russell Burnham, John C. Merriam, and Henry Fairfield Osborn in 1918. He is also credited with helping develop the first deer hunting laws in New York state, legislation which spread to other states as well over time.
    He was also a developer of wildlife management; he believed its development to be harmonized with the concept of eugenics.[12] Grant helped to found the Bronx Zoo, build the Bronx River Parkway, save the American bison as an organizer of the American Bison Society, and helped to create Glacier National Park and Denali National Park. In 1906, as Secretary of the New York Zoological Society, he lobbied to put Ota Benga, a Congolese man from the Mbuti people (a tribe of "pygmies"), on display alongside apes at the Bronx Zoo.[3]
    Throughout the 1920s and 1930s, he served on the boards of many eugenic and philanthropic societies, including the board of trustees at the American Museum of Natural History, as director of the American Eugenics Society, vice president of the Immigration Restriction League, a founding member of the Galton Society, and one of the eight members of the International Committee of Eugenics. He was awarded the gold medal of the Society of Arts and Sciences in 1929. In 1931, the world's largest tree (in Dyerville, California) was dedicated to Grant, Merriam, and Osborn by the California State Board of Parks in recognition for their environmental efforts. A subspecies of caribou was named after Grant as well (Rangifer tarandus granti, also known as Grant's Caribou). He was an early member of the Boone and Crockett Club (a big game hunting organization) since 1893, and he mobilized its wealthy members to influence the government to conserve vast areas of land against encroaching industries.[13][14][15] He was the head of the New York Zoological Society from 1925 until his death.[16]
    Historian Jonathan Spiro has argued that Grant's interests in conservationism and eugenics were not unrelated: both are hallmarks of the early 20th-century Progressive movement, and both assume the need for various types of stewardship over their charges. In Grant's mind, natural resources needed to be conserved for the Nordic Race, to the exclusion of other races. Grant viewed the Nordic race lovingly as he did any of his endangered species, and considered the modern industrial society as infringing just as much on its existence as it did on the redwoods. Like many eugenicists, Grant saw modern civilization as a violation of "survival of the fittest", whether it manifested itself in the over-logging of the forests, or the survival of the poor via welfare or charity.[verification needed ]
    Nordicism [ edit ] Grant was the author of the once much-read book The Passing of the Great Race[18] (1916), an elaborate work of racial hygiene attempting to explain the racial history of Europe. The most significant of Grant's concerns was with the changing "stock" of American immigration of the early 20th century (characterized by increased numbers of immigrants from Southern and Eastern Europe, as opposed to Western and Northern Europe), Passing of the Great Race was a "racial" interpretation of contemporary anthropology and history, stating race as the basic motor of civilization.
    Similar ideas were proposed by prehistorian Gustaf Kossinna in Germany. Grant promoted the idea of the "Nordic race",[19] a loosely defined biological-cultural grouping rooted in Scandinavia, as the key social group responsible for human development; thus the subtitle of the book was The racial basis of European history. As an avid eugenicist, Grant further advocated the separation, quarantine, and eventual collapse of "undesirable" traits and "worthless race types" from the human gene pool and the promotion, spread, and eventual restoration of desirable traits and "worthwhile race types" conducive to Nordic society:
    "Maximum Expansion of Alpines" (3000 to 1800 BC)'--Map from
    Passing of the Great Race showing the "essentially peasant" Alpine migrations into Europe.
    "Expansion of the Pre-Teutonic Nordics" (1800 to 100 BC)'--Early Nordic influence spreading over the continent.
    "Expansion of the Teutonic Nordics and Slavic Alpines" (100 BC to 1100 AD)'--Further Nordic expansion, as well as the Alpines.
    "Present Distribution of the European Races" (1916)'--Grant's vision of the status quo, with the Nordics in red, the Alpines in green, and the Mediterraneans in yellow.
    A rigid system of selection through the elimination of those who are weak or unfit'--in other words social failures'--would solve the whole question in one hundred years, as well as enable us to get rid of the undesirables who crowd our jails, hospitals, and insane asylums. The individual himself can be nourished, educated and protected by the community during his lifetime, but the state through sterilization must see to it that his line stops with him, or else future generations will be cursed with an ever increasing load of misguided sentimentalism. This is a practical, merciful, and inevitable solution of the whole problem, and can be applied to an ever widening circle of social discards, beginning always with the criminal, the diseased, and the insane, and extending gradually to types which may be called weaklings rather than defectives, and perhaps ultimately to worthless race types.[20]
    In the book, Grant recommends segregating "unfavorable" races in ghettos, by installing civil organizations through the public health system to establish quasi-dictatorships in their particular fields.[21] He states the expansion of non-Nordic race types in the Nordic system of freedom would actually mean a slavery to desires, passions, and base behaviors.
    In turn, this corruption of society would lead to the subjection of the Nordic community to "inferior" races, who would in turn long to be dominated and instructed by "superior" ones utilizing authoritarian powers. The result would be the submergence of the indigenous Nordic races under a corrupt and enfeebled system dominated by inferior races, and both in turn would be subjected by a new ruling race class.
    Nordic theory, in Grant's formulation, was similar to many 19th-century racial philosophies, which divided the human species into primarily three distinct races: Caucasoids (based in Europe - Whites), Negroids (based in Africa - Blacks), and Mongoloids (based in Asia - Asians). Nordic theory, however, further subdivided Caucasoids (Whites) into three groups: Nordics (who inhabited Northern Europe and other parts of the continent), Alpines (whose territory included central Europe and parts of Asia), and Mediterraneans (who inhabited Southern Europe, North Africa, parts of Ireland and Wales, and the Middle East).
    In Grant's view, Nordics probably evolved in a climate that "must have been such as to impose a rigid elimination of defectives through the agency of hard winters and the necessity of industry and foresight in providing the year's food, clothing, and shelter during the short summer. Such demands on energy, if long continued, would produce a strong, virile, and self-contained race which would inevitably overwhelm in battle nations whose weaker elements had not been purged by the conditions of an equally severe environment."[22] The "Proto-Nordic" human, Grant reasoned, probably evolved in eastern Germany, Poland and Russia, before migrating northward to Scandinavia.
    The Nordic, in his theory, was Homo europaeus, the white man par excellence. "It is everywhere characterized by certain unique specializations, namely, wavy brown or blond hair and blue, gray or light brown eyes, fair skin, high, narrow and straight nose, which are associated with great stature, and a long skull, as well as with abundant head and body hair."[23] Grant categorized the Alpines as being the lowest of the three European races, with the Nordics as the pinnacle of civilization.
    The Nordics are, all over the world, a race of soldiers, sailors, adventurers, and explorers, but above all, of rulers, organizers, and aristocrats in sharp contrast to the essentially peasant character of the Alpines. Chivalry and knighthood, and their still surviving but greatly impaired counterparts, are peculiarly Nordic traits, and feudalism, class distinctions, and race pride among Europeans are traceable for the most part to the north.[24]
    Grant, while aware of the "Nordic migration theory" into the Mediterranean, appears to reject this theory as an explanation for the high civilization features of the Greco-Roman world:
    The mental characteristics of the Mediterranean race are well known, and this race, while inferior in bodily stamina to both the Nordic and the Alpine, is probably the superior of both, certainly of the Alpines, in intellectual attainments. In the field of art its superiority to both the other European races is unquestioned.[24]
    Grant also considered North Africa as part of Mediterranean Europe:
    Africa north of the Sahara, from a zoological point of view, is now, and has been since early Tertiary times, a part of Europe. This is true both of animals and of the races of man. The Berbers of north Africa to-day are racially identical with the Spaniards and south Italians.[25]
    Yet while Grant recognized Mediterraneans to have abilities in art, as quoted above, later in the text, he pondered if the Mediterranean achievements in civilization were due to Nordic original ideals and structure:
    This is the race that gave the world the great civilizations of Egypt, of Crete, of Phoenicia including Carthage, of Etruria and of Mycenaean Greece. It gave us, when mixed and invigorated with Nordic elements, the most splendid of all civilizations, that of ancient Hellas, and the most enduring of political organizations, the Roman State. To what extent the Mediterranean race entered into the blood and civilization of Rome, it is now difficult to say, but the traditions of the Eternal City, its love of organization, of law and military efficiency, as well as the Roman ideals of family life, loyalty, and truth, point clearly to a Nordic rather than to a Mediterranean origin.[26]
    According to Grant, Nordics were in a dire state in the modern world, where, because of their abandonment of cultural values, rooted in religious or superstitious proto-racialism, they were close to committing "race suicide" by miscegenation and by being outbred by inferior stock taking advantage of the situation. Nordic theory was strongly embraced by the racial hygiene movement in Germany in the early 1920s and 1930s, in which, however, they typically used the term "Aryan" instead of "Nordic", although the principal Nazi ideologist, Alfred Rosenberg, preferred "Aryo-Nordic" or "Nordic-Atlantean".
    The Passing of the Great Race was published in multiple printings in the United States, and was translated into other languages, including German in 1925. By 1937, the book had sold 16,000 copies in the United States alone.[27] In the introduction, Grant acknowledged his "great indebtedness" to Henry Fairfield Osborn's The Men of the Old Stone Age, "as well as to Mr. M. Taylor Pyne and to Mr. Charles Stewart Davison for their assistance and many helpful suggestions."[28][29]
    Stephen Jay Gould described The Passing of the Great Race as "the most influential tract of American scientific racism".[31] Grant's work was embraced by proponents of the National Socialist movement in Germany and was the first non-German book ordered to be reprinted by the Nazis when they took power. Adolf Hitler wrote to Grant, "The book is my Bible."[32]
    Grant's work is considered one of the most influential and vociferous works of scientific racism and eugenics to come out of the United States. One of his long-time opponents was the anthropologist Franz Boas. Grant disliked Boas and for several years tried to get him fired from his position at Columbia University.[33][34] Boas and Grant were involved in a bitter struggle for control over the discipline of anthropology in the United States, while they both served (along with others) on the National Research Council Committee on Anthropology after the First World War.
    Grant represented the "hereditarian" branch of physical anthropology at the time, despite his relatively amateur status, and was staunchly opposed to and by Boas himself (and the latter's students), who advocated cultural anthropology. Boas and his students eventually wrested control of the American Anthropological Association from Grant and his supporters, who had used it as a flagship organization for his brand of anthropology. In response, Grant, along with American eugenicist and biologist Charles B. Davenport, in 1918 founded the Galton Society as an alternative to Boas.[35]
    Immigration restriction [ edit ] Grant advocated restricted immigration to the United States through limiting immigration from Eastern Europe and Southern Europe, as well as the complete end of immigration from East Asia. He also advocated efforts to purify the American population through selective breeding. He served as the vice president of the Immigration Restriction League from 1922 to his death. Acting as an expert on world racial data, Grant also provided statistics for the Immigration Act of 1924 to set the quotas on immigrants from certain European countries.[36] Even after passing the statute, Grant continued to be irked that even a smattering of non-Nordics were allowed to immigrate to the country each year. He also assisted in the passing and prosecution of several anti-miscegenation laws, including the Racial Integrity Act of 1924 in the state of Virginia, where he sought to codify his particular version of the "one-drop rule" into law.[citation needed ]
    Though Grant was extremely influential in legislating his view of racial theory, he began to fall out of favor in the United States in the early 1930s. The declining interest in his work has been attributed both to the effects of the Great Depression, which resulted in a general backlash against Social Darwinism and related philosophies, and to the changing dynamics of racial issues in the United States during the interwar period. Rather than subdivide Europe into separate racial groups, the bi-racial (black vs. white) theory of Grant's proteg(C) Lothrop Stoddard became more dominant in the aftermath of the Great Migration of African-Americans from Southern States to Northern and Western ones (Guterl 2001).[citation needed ]
    Legacy [ edit ] According to historian of economics Thomas C. Leonard:
    Prominent American eugenicists, including movement leaders Charles Davenport and Madison Grant, were conservatives. They identified fitness with social and economic position, and they also were hard hereditarians, dubious of the Lamarckian inheritance clung to by progressives. But as eugenicists, these conservatives were not classical liberals. Like all eugenicists, they were illiberal. Conservatives do not object to state coercion so long as it is used for what they regard as the right purposes, and these men were happy to trample on individual rights to obtain the greater good of improved hereditary health....Historians invariably style Madison Grant a conservative, because he was a blueblood clubman from a patrician family, and his best- known work, The Passing of the Great Race, is a museum piece of scientific racism. But Grant's eugenic ideas originated from a corner of the conservative impulse intimately connected to Progressivism: conservation.[37]
    Leonard wrote that Grant also opposed war, had doubts about imperialism, and supported birth control.[38]
    Grant became a part of popular culture in 1920s America, especially in New York. Grant's conservationism and fascination with zoological natural history made him influential among the New York elite, who agreed with his cause, most notably Theodore Roosevelt. Author F. Scott Fitzgerald featured a reference to Grant in The Great Gatsby. Tom Buchanan, a fatuous Long Island aristocrat married to Daisy, was reading a book called The Rise of the Colored Empires by "this man Goddard", blending Grant's Passing of the Great Race and his colleague Lothrop Stoddard's The Rising Tide of Color Against White World Supremacy.[citation needed ]Grant left no offspring when he died in 1937 of nephritis. Several hundred people attended Grant's funeral, and he was buried in Sleepy Hollow Cemetery in Tarrytown, New York. He left a bequest of $25,000 to the New York Zoological Society to create "The Grant Endowment Fund for the Protection of Wild Life", $5,000 to the American Museum of Natural History, and another $5,000 to the Boone and Crockett Club.[citation needed ] Relatives destroyed his personal papers and correspondence after his death.
    California State Parks removed Grant's Marker at Prairie Creek Redwoods State Park in June 2021.
    At the postwar Nuremberg Trials, three pages of excerpts from Grant's Passing of the Great Race were introduced into evidence by the defense of Karl Brandt, Hitler's personal physician and head of the Nazi euthanasia program, in order to justify the population policies of the Third Reich, or at least indicate that they were not ideologically unique to Nazi Germany.[40]
    Grant's works of "scientific racism" have been cited to demonstrate that many of the genocidal and eugenic ideas associated with the Third Reich did not arise specifically in Germany, and in fact that many of them had origins in other countries, including the United States.[41] As such, because of Grant's well-connected and influential friends, he is often used to illustrate the strain of race-based eugenic thinking in the United States, which had some influence until the Second World War. Because of the use made of Grant's eugenics work by the policy-makers of Nazi Germany, his work as a conservationist has been somewhat ignored and obscured, as many organizations with which he was once associated (such as the Sierra Club) wanted to minimize their association with him. His racial theories, which were popularized in the 1920s, are today seen as discredited.[42][43] The work of Franz Boas and his students, Ruth Benedict and Margaret Mead, demonstrated that there were no inferior or superior races.[43]
    On June 15, 2021, California State Parks removed a memorial to Madison Grant from Prairie Creek Redwoods State Park placed in the park in 1948. The monument's removal is part of a broader effort in California Parks to address outdated exhibits and interpretations related to the founders of Save the Redwoods. In spring 2022, California State Parks will install a new interpretive panel, co-written with academic scholars, that tells a fuller story about Grant, his conservation legacy, and his central role in the eugenics movement.[44][45]
    Works [ edit ] The Caribou. New York: Office of the New York Zoological Society, 1902."Moose". New York: Report of the Forest, Fish, Game Commission, 1903.The Origin and Relationship of the Large Mammals of North America. New York: Office of the New York Zoological Society, 1904.The Rocky Mountain Goat. Office of the New York Zoological Society, 1905.The Passing of the Great Race; or, The Racial Basis of European History. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1916.New ed., rev. and Amplified, with a New Preface by Henry Fairfield Osborn. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1918Rev. ed., with a Documentary Supplement, and a Preface by Henry Fairfield Osborn. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1921.Fourth rev. ed., with a Documentary Supplement, and a Preface by Henry Fairfield Osborn. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1936.Saving the Redwoods; an Account of the Movement During 1919 to Preserve the Redwoods of California. New York: Zoological Society, 1919.[46]Early History of Glacier National Park, Montana. Washington: Govt. print. off., 1919.The Conquest of a Continent; or, The Expansion of Races in America, Charles Scribner's Sons, 1933.Selected articles [ edit ] "The Depletion of American Forests", Century Magazine, Vol. XLVIII, No. 1, May 1894."The Vanishing Moose, and their Extermination in the Adirondacks", Century Magazine, Vol. XLVII, 1894."A Canadian Moose Hunt". In: Theodore Roosevelt (ed.), Hunting in Many Lands. New York: Forest and Stream Publishing Company, 1895."The Future of Our Fauna", Zoological Society Bulletin, No. 34, June 1909."History of the Zoological Society", Zoological Society Bulletin, Decennial Number, No. 37, January 1910."Condition of Wild Life in Alaska". In: Hunting at High Altitudes. New York: Harper & Brothers, Publishers, 1913."Wild Life Protection", Zoological Society Bulletin, Vol. XIX, No. 1, January 1916."The Passing of the Great Race", Geographical Review, Vol. 2, No. 5, Nov., 1916."The Physical Basis of Race", Journal of the National Institute of Social Sciences, Vol. III, January 1917."Discussion of Article on Democracy and Heredity", The Journal of Heredity, Vol. X, No. 4, April, 1919."Restriction of Immigration: Racial Aspects", Journal of the National Institute of Social Sciences, Vol. VII, August 1921."Racial Transformation of America", The North American Review, March 1924."America for the Americans", The Forum, September 1925.See also [ edit ] RacismInstitutional racismEugenics in the United StatesHenry Fairfield OsbornReferences [ edit ] ^ Purdy, Jedediah (2015). "Environmentalism's Racist History". The New Yorker. Archived from the original on 2015-11-22 . Retrieved 2022-08-15 . ^ "Madison Grant (U.S. National Park Service)". U.S. National Park Service. Archived from the original on 2022-06-07 . Retrieved 2022-08-15 . ^ a b Frazier, Ian (August 19, 2019). "When W. E. B. Du Bois Made a Laughingstock of a White Supremacist". The New Yorker. ISSN 0028-792X. Archived from the original on 2019-11-07 . Retrieved October 29, 2019 . ^ Hoff, Aliya. "Madison Grant (1865''1937)". The Embryo Project Encyclopedia . Retrieved 2022-08-15 . ^ Zubrin, Robert (2012). Merchants of Despair: Radical Environmentalists, Criminal Pseudo-scientists, and the Fatal Cult of Antihumanism. Encounter Books, p. 57. ^ "Maj. Gabriel Grant (Surgeon)". health.mil (the official website of the Military Health System and the Defense Health Agency). Archived from the original on June 27, 2015 . Retrieved April 13, 2015 . ^ Leonard, Thomas C. (2016). Illiberal Reformers: Race, Eugenics, and American Economics in the Progressive Era. Princeton University Press. p. 116. ^ Spiro, Jonathan (2009). Defending the Master Race: Conservation, Eugenics, and the Legacy of Madison Grant. University Press of New England. pp. 67, 136. ISBN 978-1-58465-810-8 '' via Google Books. ^ Allen, Garland E. (2010). "Review of Defending the Master Race: Conservation, Eugenics, and the Legacy of Madison Grant, Jonathan Spiro". Isis. 101 (4): 909''911. doi:10.1086/659713. ISSN 0021-1753. JSTOR 10.1086/659713. ^ "B&C Member Spotlight - Madison Grant". Boone and Crockett Club. 2021-12-09 . Retrieved 2022-08-15 . ^ "A New Kind of Zoo - B&C Impact Series". Boone and Crockett Club. 2022-02-14 . Retrieved 2022-08-15 . ^ "MADISON GRANT, 71, ZOOLOGIST, IS DEAD; Head of New York Zoological Society Since 1925 Sponsored the Bronx River Parkway". The New York Times. 1937-05-31. ISSN 0362-4331 . Retrieved 2022-08-15 . ^ Lindsay, J.A. (1917). "The Passing of the Great Race, or the Racial Basis of European History " , The Eugenics Review 9 (2), pp. 139''141. ^ Alexander, Charles C. (1962). "Prophet of American Racism: Madison Grant and the Nordic Myth". Phylon. 23 (1): 73''90. doi:10.2307/274146. JSTOR 274146. ^ The Passing of the Great Race (1916), p. 46. ^ "The Passing of the Great Race" (PDF) . SolarGeneral.org. ^ The Passing of the Great Race (1916), pp. 152''153. ^ The Passing of the Great Race (1916), p. 150. ^ a b The Passing of the Great Race (1916), p. 198. ^ The Passing of the Great Race (1916), pp. 137-138. ^ The Passing of the Great Race (1916), p. 139. ^ Hoff, Aliya R., "Madison Grant (1865-1937)" in Embryo Project Encyclopedia (online), (National Science Foundation, Arizona State University, June 20, 2021). ^ Grant, Madison (1916). The Passing of the Great Race or the Racial Basis of European History. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. pp. xx. ^ Okrent, Daniel (2019). The Guarded Gate: Bigotry, Eugenics, and the Law That Kept Two Generations of Jews, Italians, and Other European Immigrants Out of America. New York: Scribner. pp. 209''210. ^ HARTMAN, NOEL (January 2016). " "THE PASSING OF THE GREAT RACE" AT 100". PublicBooks.org. ^ Whitney, Leon (1971). Autobiography of Leon Fradley Whitney. Islandora Repository. p. 205. ^ Petit, Jeanne D. (2010). The Men and Women We Want: Gender, Race, and the Progressive Era Literary Test Debate. University of Rochester. p. 165. ISBN 978-1-58046-348-5 . Retrieved 26 June 2011 . ^ Winfield, Ann Gibson (2007). Eugenics and Education in America: Institutionalized Racism and the Implications of History, Ideology, and Memory. Peter Lang. p. 74. ISBN 978-0-8204-8146-3. ^ Spiro 2002 ^ Tucker, William H. (2007). The Funding of Scientific Racism: Wickliffe Draper and the Pioneer Fund. University of Illinois Press. ISBN 978-0-252-07463-9. ^ Thomas C. Leonard, "Illiberal Reformers: Race, Eugenics, and American Economics in the Progressive Era" (Princeton UP 2016) p 115. ^ Leonard, Thomas C. Illiberal Reformers Princeton University Press 2016 p. 116 ^ "Zoo officials apologize for display of African man in 1906". Associated Press. July 30, 2020 . Retrieved 22 January 2022 . ^ Black, Edwin (2003). War Against the Weak. Eugenics and America's Campaign to Create a Master Race. New York: Four Walls Eight Windows, pp. 259, 273, 274''275, 296. ^ Smelser, Neil J.; Alexander, Jeffrey C. (1999-05-02). Diversity and Its Discontents: Cultural Conflict and Common Ground in Contemporary American Society. Princeton University Press. p. 254. ISBN 978-0-691-00437-2. ^ a b Cruden, Robert (1980). Many and One: A Social History of the United States. Prentice-Hall. p. 403. ISBN 978-0-13-555714-3. ^ Vanderheiden, Isabella (June 28, 2021). "Memorial removed from Prairie Creek over racist, eugenics beliefs of Save the Redwoods League founder". Times-Standard . Retrieved 22 January 2022 . ^ "California State Parks Removes Memorial to Madison Grant from Prairie Creek Redwoods State Park". CA State Parks (Press release). June 25, 2021 . Retrieved 2021-12-09 . ^ Reprinted in The National Geographic, Vol. XXXVII, January/June, 1920. Further reading [ edit ] "Madison Grant, 71, Zoologist, Is Dead", The New York Times (May 31, 1937), p. 15.Allen, Garland E. (2013). "'Culling the Herd': Eugenics and the Conservation Movement in the United States, 1900-1940," Journal of the History of Biology 46, pp. 31''72.Barkan, Elazar (1992). The Retreat of Scientific Racism: Changing Concepts of Race in Britain and the United States between the World Wars. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.Cooke, Kathy J. (2000). "Grant, Madison". American National Biography. Oxford University Press. Online.Degler, Carl N. (1991). In Search of Human Nature: The Decline and Revival of Darwinism in American Social Thought. Oxford University Press.Field, Geoffrey G. (1977). "Nordic Racism", Journal of the History of Ideas 38 (3), pp. 523''540.Guterl, Matthew Press (2001). The Color of Race in America, 1900''1940. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Lee, Erika. "America first, immigrants last: American xenophobia then and now." Journal of the Gilded Age and Progressive Era 19.1 (2020): 3-18.Leonard, Thomas C. Illiberal Reformers: Race, Eugenics, and American Economics in the Progressive Era (Princeton UP, 2016)Leonard, Thomas C. " 'More Merciful and Not Less Effective': Eugenics and American Economics in the Progressive Era." History of Political Economy// 35.4 (2003): 687-712. onlineMarcus, Alan P. "The Dangers of the Geographical Imagination in the US Eugenics Movement." Geographical Review 111.1 (2021): 36-56.Purdy, Jedediah (2015). "Environmentalism's Racist History". The New Yorker.Serwer, Adam (April 2019). "White Nationalism's Deep American Roots". The Atlantic. Spiro, Jonathan P. Defending the Master Race: Conservation, Eugenics, and the Legacy of Madison Grant (Univ. of Vermont Press, 2009) excerptSpiro, Jonathan P. "Nordic vs. Anti-Nordic: The Galton Society and the American Anthropological Association", Patterns of Prejudice 36#1 (2002): 35''48.Regal, Brian (2002). Henry Fairfield Osborn: Race and the Search for the Origins of Man. Aldershot, UK: Ashgate.Regal, Brian (2004). "Maxwell Perkins and Madison Grant: Eugenics Publishing at Scribners", Princeton University Library Chronicle 65#2, pp. 317''341.External links [ edit ] Madison Grant at Find a GraveExcerpts from Passing of the Great Race used at the Nuremberg TrialsWorks by Madison Grant at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks) Works by Madison Grant at Project Gutenberg
  Lie - Wikipedia
    Link to Article
    Archived Version
    Wed, 07 Jun 2023 18:40
    Intentionally false statement made to deceive
    The character of
    Pinocchio, whose nose grows when he tells a lie, has become a symbol of untruthfulness.
    A lie is an assertion that is believed to be false, typically used with the purpose of deceiving or misleading someone.[1][2][3] The practice of communicating lies is called lying. A person who communicates a lie may be termed a liar. Lies can be interpreted as deliberately false statements or misleading statements. Lies may also serve a variety of instrumental, interpersonal, or psychological functions for the individuals who use them.
    Generally, the term "lie" carries a negative connotation, and depending on the context a person who communicates a lie may be subject to social, legal, religious, or criminal sanctions; for instance, perjury, or the act of lying under oath, can result in criminal and civil charges being pressed against the perjurer.
    Although people in many cultures believe that deception can be detected by observing nonverbal behaviors (e.g. not making eye contact, fidgeting, stuttering) research indicates that people overestimate both the significance of such cues and their ability to make accurate judgements about deception.[4][5] More generally, people's ability to make true judgments is affected by biases towards accepting incoming information and interpreting feelings as evidence of truth. People do not always check incoming assertions against their memory.[6]
    Types and associated terms A barefaced, bald-faced or bold-faced lie is an impudent, brazen, shameless, flagrant, or audacious lie that is sometimes but not always undisguised and that it is even then not always obvious to those hearing it.[7]A big lie is one that attempts to trick the victim into believing something major, which will likely be contradicted by some information the victim already possesses, or by their common sense. When the lie is of sufficient magnitude it may succeed, due to the victim's reluctance to believe that an untruth on such a grand scale would indeed be concocted.[8]A black lie is about simple and callous selfishness. They are usually told when others gain nothing, and the sole purpose is either to get oneself out of trouble (reducing harm against oneself), or to gain something one desires (increasing benefits for oneself).[9][better source needed ]A blue lie is a form of lying that is told purportedly to benefit a collective or "in the name of the collective good". The origin of the term "blue lie" is possibly from cases where police officers made false statements to protect the police force, or to ensure the success of a legal case against an accused.[10] This differs from the blue wall of silence in that a blue lie is not an omission but a stated falsehood.[citation needed ]An April fool is a lie or hoax told/performed on April Fools' Day.To bluff is to pretend to have a capability or intention one does not possess.[8] Bluffing is an act of deception that is rarely seen as immoral when it takes place in the context of a game, such as poker, where this kind of deception is consented to in advance by the players. For instance, gamblers who deceive other players into thinking they have different cards to those they really hold, or athletes who hint that they will move left and then dodge right are not considered to be lying (also known as a feint or juke). In these situations, deception is acceptable and is commonly expected as a tactic.[citation needed ]Bullshit (also B.S., bullcrap, bull) does not necessarily have to be a complete fabrication. While a lie is related by a speaker who believes what is said is false, bullshit is offered by a speaker who does not care whether what is said is true because the speaker is more concerned with giving the hearer some impression. Thus, bullshit may be either true or false, but demonstrates a lack of concern for the truth that is likely to lead to falsehoods.[11]A motivational poster about lying declares "An
    ostrich only thinks he 'covers up'"
    A cover-up may be used to deny, defend, or obfuscate a lie, errors, embarrassing actions, or lifestyle, and/or lie(s) made previously.[8] One may deny a lie made on a previous occasion, or alternatively, one may claim that a previous lie was not as egregious as it was. For example, to claim that a premeditated lie was really "only" an emergency lie, or to claim that a self-serving lie was really "only" a white lie or noble lie. This should not be confused with confirmation bias in which the deceiver is deceiving themselves.[citation needed ]Defamation is the communication of a false statement that harms the reputation of an individual person, business, product, group, government, religion, or nation.[8]To deflect is to avoid the subject that the lie is about, not giving attention to the lie. When attention is given to the subject the lie is based around, deflectors ignore or refuse to respond. Skillful deflectors are passive-aggressive, who when confronted with the subject choose to ignore and not respond.[12]Disinformation is intentionally false or misleading information that is spread in a calculated way to deceive target audiences.[8]An exaggeration occurs when the most fundamental aspects of a statement are true, but only to a certain degree. It also is seen as "stretching the truth" or making something appear more powerful, meaningful, or real than it is. Saying that someone devoured most of something when they only ate half is considered an exaggeration. An exaggeration might be easily found to be a hyperbole where a person's statement (i.e. in informal speech, such as "He did this one million times already!") is meant not to be understood literally.[8] Fake news is supposed to be a type of yellow journalism that consists of deliberate misinformation or hoaxes spread via traditional print and broadcast news media or online social media.[13] Sometimes the term is applied as a deceptive device to deflect attention from uncomfortable truths and facts.[citation needed ]A fib is a lie that is easy to forgive due to its subject being a trivial matter; for example, a child may tell a fib by claiming that the family dog broke a household vase, when the child was the one who broke it.[8]Fraud refers to the act of inducing another person or people to believe a lie in order to secure material or financial gain for the liar. Depending on the context, fraud may subject the liar to civil or criminal penalties.[14]A gray lie is told partly to help others and partly to help ourselves. It may vary in the shade of gray, depending on the balance of help and harm. Gray lies are, almost by definition, hard to clarify. For example you can lie to help a friend out of trouble but then gain the reciprocal benefit of them lying for you while those they have harmed in some way lose out.[9][better source needed ]A half-truth or partial truth is a deceptive statement that includes some element of truth. The statement might be partly true, the statement may be totally true, but only part of the whole truth, or it may employ some deceptive element, such as improper punctuation or double meaning, especially if the intent is to deceive, evade, blame, or misrepresent the truth.[15] Partial truths are characterized by malicious intent, and therefore, honest people should not excuse them as containing a "rational kernel."[16]An honest lie (or confabulation) may be identified by verbal statements or actions that inaccurately describe the history, background, and present situations. There is generally no intent to misinform and the individual is unaware that their information is false. Because of this, it is not technically a lie at all since, by definition, there must be an intent to deceive for the statement to be considered a lie.[citation needed ]Jocose lies are lies meant in jest, intended to be understood as such by all present parties. Teasing and irony are examples. A more elaborate instance is seen in some storytelling traditions, where the storyteller's insistence that the story is the absolute truth, despite all evidence to the contrary (i.e., tall tale), is considered humorous. There is debate about whether these are "real" lies, and different philosophers hold different views. The Crick Crack Club in London arranges a yearly "Grand Lying Contest" with the winner being awarded the coveted "Hodja Cup" (named for the Mulla Nasreddin: "The truth is something I have never spoken."). The winner in 2010 was Hugh Lupton. In the United States, the Burlington Liars' Club awards an annual title to the "World Champion Liar."[17]Lie-to-children is a phrase that describes a simplified explanation of technical or complex subjects as a teaching method for children and laypeople. While lies-to-children are useful in teaching complex subjects to people who are new to the concepts discussed, they can promote the creation of misconceptions among the people who listen to them. The phrase has been incorporated by academics within the fields of biology, evolution, bioinformatics, and the social sciences. Media use of the term has extended to publications including The Conversation and Forbes.[citation needed ]Lying by omission , also known as a continuing misrepresentation or quote mining, occurs when an important fact is left out in order to foster a misconception. Lying by omission includes the failure to correct pre-existing misconceptions. For example, when the seller of a car declares it has been serviced regularly, but does not mention that a fault was reported during the last service, the seller lies by omission. It may be compared to dissimulation. An omission is when a person tells most of the truth, but leaves out a few key facts that therefore, completely obscures the truth.[12]Consumer protection laws often mandate the posting of notices, such as this one which appears in all
    automotive repair shops in California.
    Lying in trade occurs when the seller of a product or service may advertise untrue facts about the product or service in order to gain sales, especially by competitive advantage. Many countries and states have enacted consumer protection laws intended to combat such fraud.A memory hole is a mechanism for the alteration or disappearance of inconvenient or embarrassing documents, photographs, transcripts, or other records, such as from a website or other archive, particularly as part of an attempt to give the impression that something never happened.[18][19] Minimization is the opposite of exaggeration. It is a type of deception[20] involving denial coupled with rationalization in situations where complete denial is implausible.[citation needed ]Mutual deceit is a situation wherein lying is both accepted and expected[21] or that the parties mutually accept the deceit in question. This can be demonstrated in the case of a poker game wherein the strategies rely on deception and bluffing to win.[22] A noble lie, which also could be called a strategic untruth, is one that normally would cause discord if uncovered, but offers some benefit to the liar and assists in an orderly society, therefore, potentially being beneficial to others. It is often told to maintain law, order, and safety.Paltering is the active use of selective truthful statements to mislead.[24]Paternalistic deception is a lie told because it is believed (possibly incorrectly) that the deceived person will benefit.In psychiatry, pathological lying (also called compulsive lying, pseudologia fantastica, and mythomania) is a behavior of habitual or compulsive lying.[25][26] It was first described in the medical literature in 1891 by Anton Delbrueck.[26] Although it is a controversial topic,[26] pathological lying has been defined as "falsification entirely disproportionate to any discernible end in view, may be extensive and very complicated, and may manifest over a period of years or even a lifetime".[25] The individual may be aware they are lying, or may believe they are telling the truth, being unaware that they are relating fantasies.[citation needed ]Perjury is the act of lying or making verifiably false statements on a material matter under oath or affirmation in a court of law, or in any of various sworn statements in writing. Perjury is a crime, because the witness has sworn to tell the truth and, for the credibility of the court to remain intact, witness testimony must be relied on as truthful.[8]A polite lie is a lie that a politeness standard requires, and that usually is known to be untrue by both parties. Whether such lies are acceptable is heavily dependent on culture. A common polite lie in international etiquette may be to decline invitations because of "scheduling difficulties", or due to "diplomatic illness". Similarly, the butler lie is a small lie that usually is sent electronically and is used to terminate conversations or to save face.[27]Puffery is an exaggerated claim typically found in advertising and publicity announcements, such as "the highest quality at the lowest price", or "always votes in the best interest of all the people". Such statements are unlikely to be true '' but cannot be proven false and so, do not violate trade laws, especially as the consumer is expected to be able to determine that it is not the absolute truth.[28]A red lie is about spite and revenge. It is driven by the motive to harm others even at the expense of harming oneself, out of an angry desire for retribution.[9][better source needed ]The phrase "speaking with a forked tongue" means to deliberately say one thing and mean another or, to be hypocritical, or act in a duplicitous manner. This phrase was adopted by Americans around the time of the Revolution, and may be found in abundant references from the early nineteenth century '' often reporting on American officers who sought to convince the Indigenous peoples of the Americas with whom they negotiated that they "spoke with a straight and not with a forked tongue" (as for example, President Andrew Jackson told members of the Creek Nation in 1829).[29] According to one 1859 account, the proverb that the "white man spoke with a forked tongue" originated in the 1690s, in the descriptions by the indigenous peoples of French colonials in America inviting members of the Iroquois Confederacy to attend a peace conference, but when the Iroquois arrived, the French had set an ambush and proceeded to slaughter and capture the Iroquois.[30]Weasel word is an informal term[31] for words and phrases aimed at creating an impression that a specific or meaningful statement has been made, when in fact only a vague or ambiguous claim has been communicated, enabling the specific meaning to be denied if the statement is challenged. A more formal term is equivocation.[citation needed ] A white lie is a harmless or trivial lie, especially one told in order to be polite or to avoid hurting someone's feelings or stopping them from being upset by the truth.[32][33][34] A white lie also is considered a lie to be used for greater good (pro-social behavior). It sometimes is used to shield someone from a hurtful or emotionally-damaging truth, especially when not knowing the truth is deemed by the liar as completely harmless.[citation needed ]Vranyo expresses white lies or half-lies in Russian culture, told without the intention of (maliciously) deceiving, but as a fantasy, suppressing unpleasant parts of the truth.[citation needed ]Consequences The potential consequences of lying are manifold; some in particular are worth considering. Typically lies aim to deceive, so the hearer may acquire a false belief (or at least something that the speaker believes to be false). When deception is unsuccessful, a lie may be discovered. The discovery of a lie may discredit other statements by the same speaker, thereby staining that speaker's reputation. In some circumstances, it may also negatively affect the social or legal standing of the speaker. Lying in a court of law, for instance, is a criminal offense (perjury).[35]
    Hannah Arendt spoke about extraordinary cases in which an entire society is being lied to consistently. She said that the consequences of such lying are "not that you believe the lies, but rather that nobody believes anything any longer. This is because lies, by their very nature, have to be changed, and a lying government has constantly to rewrite its own history. On the receiving end you get not only one lie '' a lie which you could go on for the rest of your days '' but you get a great number of lies, depending on how the political wind blows."[36]
    Detection The question of whether lies can be detected reliably through nonverbal has been the subject of frequent study. While people in many cultures believe that deception can be indicated by behaviors such as looking away, fidgeting, or stammering, this is not supported by research.[4][5] A 2019 review of research on deception and its detection through nonverbal behavior concludes that people tend to overestimate both the reliability of nonverbal behavior as an indicator of deception, and their ability to make accurate judgements about deception based on nonverbal behavior.[4][37]
    Polygraph "lie detector" machines measure the physiological stress a subject endures in a number of measures while giving statements or answering questions. Spikes in stress indicators are purported to reveal lying. The accuracy of this method is widely disputed. In several well-known cases, application of the technique has been shown to have given incorrect results.[ examples needed ] Nonetheless, it remains in use in many areas, primarily as a method for eliciting confessions or employment screening. The unreliability of polygraph results is the basis of the exclusion of such evaluations as admissible evidence in many courts, and the technique is generally perceived to be an example of pseudoscience.[38]
    A recent study found that composing a lie takes longer than telling the truth and thus, the time taken to answer a question may be used as a method of lie detection.[39] Instant answers with a lie may be proof of a prepared lie. A recommendation provided to resolve that contradiction is to try to surprise the subject and find a midway answer, not too quick, nor too long.[40]
    Ethics Utilitarian philosophers have supported lies that achieve good outcomes '' white lies.[41] In his 2008 book, How to Make Good Decisions and Be Right All the Time, Iain King suggested a credible rule on lying was possible, and he defined it as: "Deceive only if you can change behaviour in a way worth more than the trust you would lose, were the deception discovered (whether the deception actually is exposed or not)."[42]
    Stanford Law professor Deborah L. Rhode articulated three rules she says ethicists generally agree distinguish "white lies" from harmful lies or cheating:[43]
    A disinterested observer would conclude that the benefits outweigh the harmsThere is no alternativeIf everyone in similar circumstances acted similarly, society would be no worse offAristotle believed no general rule on lying was possible, because anyone who advocated lying could never be believed, he said.[44] The philosophers St. Augustine, St. Thomas Aquinas, and Immanuel Kant, condemned all lying.[41] According to all three, there are no circumstances in which, ethically, one may lie. Even if the only way to protect oneself is to lie, it is never ethically permissible to lie even in the face of murder, torture, or any other hardship. Each of these philosophers gave several arguments for the ethical basis against lying, all compatible with each other. Among the more important arguments are:
    Lying is a perversion of the natural faculty of speech, the natural end of which is to communicate the thoughts of the speaker.When one lies, one undermines trust in society.In Lying, neuroscientist Sam Harris argues that lying is negative for the liar and the person who's being lied to. To say lies is to deny others access to reality, and often we cannot anticipate how harmful lies can be. The ones we lie to may fail to solve problems they could have solved only on a basis of good information. To lie also harms oneself, makes the liar distrust the person who's being lied to.[45] Liars generally feel badly about their lies and sense a loss of sincerity, authenticity, and integrity. Harris asserts that honesty allows one to have deeper relationships and to bring all dysfunction in one's life to the surface.
    In Human, All Too Human, philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche suggested that those who refrain from lying may do so only because of the difficulty involved in maintaining lies. This is consistent with his general philosophy that divides (or ranks) people according to strength and ability; thus, some people tell the truth only out of weakness.
    A study was conducted by the University of Nottingham, released in 2016, which utilized a dice roll test where participants could easily lie to get a bigger payout. The study found that in countries with high prevalence of rule breaking, dishonesty in people in their early 20s was more prevalent.[46]
    Great apes and mother birds Possession of the capacity to lie among non-humans has been asserted during language studies with great apes. In one instance, the gorilla Koko, when asked who tore a sink from the wall, pointed to one of her handlers and then laughed.[47]
    Deceptive body language, such as feints that mislead as to the intended direction of attack or flight, is observed in many species. A mother bird deceives when she pretends to have a broken wing to divert the attention of a perceived predator '' including unwitting humans '' from the eggs in her nest, instead to her, as she draws the predator away from the location of the nest, most notably a trait of the killdeer.[48]
    Cultural references Carlo Collodi's Pinocchio is a wooden puppet character often led into trouble by his propensity to lie; his nose grows with every one. Hence, long noses have become a caricature of liars.The Boy Who Cried Wolf, a fable attributed to Aesop about a boy who continually lies that a wolf is coming. When a wolf does appear, nobody believes him anymore.A famous anecdote by Parson Weems claims that George Washington once cut at a cherry tree with a hatchet when he was a small child. His father asked him who cut the cherry tree and Washington confessed his crime with the words: "I'm sorry, father, I cannot tell a lie."To Tell the Truth was the originator of a genre of game shows with three contestants claiming to be a person only one of them is.Glenn Kessler, a journalist at The Washington Post, awards one to four Pinocchios to politicians in his Washington Post Fact Checker blog.[49]The clich(C) "All is fair in love and war",[50][51] asserts justification for lies used to gain advantage in these situations.Sun Tzu declared that "All warfare is based on deception." Machiavelli advised in The Prince that a prince must hide his behaviors and become a "great liar and deceiver."[52]Thomas Hobbes wrote in Leviathan: "In war, force and fraud are the two cardinal virtues." The concept of a memory hole was first popularized by George Orwell's dystopian novel, Nineteen Eighty-Four, where the Party's Ministry of Truth systematically re-created all potential historical documents, in effect re-writing all of history to match the often-changing state propaganda. These changes were complete and undetectable.In the film Big Fat Liar, the story producer Marty Wolf (a notorious and proud liar) steals a story from student Jason Shepard, telling of a character whose lies become out of control to the point where each lie he tells causes him to grow in size.In the film Liar Liar, the lawyer Fletcher Reede (Jim Carrey) cannot lie for 24 hours, due to a wish of his son that magically came true.In the 1985 film Max Headroom, the title character comments that one can always tell when a politician lies because "their lips move". The joke has been widely repeated and rephrased.Larry-Boy! And the Fib from Outer Space! was a VeggieTales story of a crime-fighting super-hero with super-suction ears, having to stop an alien, calling himself "Fib", from destroying the town of Bumblyburg due to the lies that caused Fib to grow. Telling the truth is the moral to this story.Lie to Me is a television series based on behavior analysts who read lies through facial expressions and body language.The Invention of Lying is a 2009 movie depicting the fictitious invention of the first lie, starring Ricky Gervais, Jennifer Garner, Rob Lowe, and Tina Fey.The Adventures of Baron Munchausen tell the story about an eighteenth-century baron who tells outrageous, unbelievable stories, all of which he claims are true.In the games Grand Theft Auto IV and Grand Theft Auto V, there's an agency named FIB, a parody of the FBI, which is known to cover up stories, cooperate with criminals, and extract information with the use of lying.Psychology It is asserted that the capacity to lie is a talent human beings possess universally.[53]
    The evolutionary theory proposed by Darwin states that only the fittest will survive and by lying, we aim to improve other's perception of our social image and status, capability, and desirability in general.[54] Studies have shown that humans begin lying at a mere age of six months, through crying and laughing, to gain attention.[55]
    Scientific studies have shown differences in forms of lying across gender. Although men and women lie at equal frequencies, men are more likely to lie in order to please themselves while women are more likely to lie to please others.[56] The presumption is that humans are individuals living in a world of competition and strict social norms, where they are able to use lies and deception to enhance chances of survival and reproduction.
    Stereotypically speaking, David Livingstone Smith asserts that men like to exaggerate about their sexual expertise, but shy away from topics that degrade them while women understate their sexual expertise to make themselves more respectable and loyal in the eyes of men and avoid being labelled as a 'scarlet woman'.[56]
    Those with Parkinson's disease show difficulties in deceiving others, difficulties that link to prefrontal hypometabolism. This suggests a link between the capacity for dishonesty and integrity of prefrontal functioning.[57]
    Pseudologia fantastica is a term applied by psychiatrists to the behavior of habitual or compulsive lying. Mythomania is the condition where there is an excessive or abnormal propensity for lying and exaggerating.[58]
    A recent study found that composing a lie takes longer than telling the truth.[40] Or, as Chief Joseph succinctly put it, "It does not require many words to speak the truth."[59]
    Some people who are not convincing liars truly believe they are.[60]
    Religious perspectives In the Bible The Old Testament and New Testament of the Bible both contain statements that God cannot lie and that lying is immoral (Num. 23:19,[61] Hab. 2:3,[62] Heb. 6:13''18).[63] Nevertheless, there are examples of God deliberately causing enemies to become disorientated and confused, in order to provide victory (2 Thess. 2:11;[64][65] 1 Kings 22:23;[66] Ezek. 14:9).[67]
    Various passages of the Bible feature exchanges that assert lying is immoral and wrong (Prov. 6:16''19; Ps. 5:6), (Lev. 19:11; Prov. 14:5; Prov. 30:6; Zeph. 3:13), (Isa. 28:15; Dan. 11:27), most famously, in the Ten Commandments: "Thou shalt not bear false witness" (Ex. 20:2''17; Deut. 5:6''21); Ex. 23:1; Matt. 19:18; Mark 10:19; Luke 18:20 a specific reference to perjury.
    Other passages feature descriptive (not prescriptive) exchanges where lying was committed in extreme circumstances involving life and death. Most Christian philosophers might argue that lying is never acceptable, but that even those who are righteous in God's eyes sin sometimes. Old Testament accounts of lying include:[68]
    The midwives lied about their inability to kill the Israelite children. (Ex. 1:15''21).Rahab lied to the king of Jericho about hiding the Hebrew spies (Josh. 2:4''5) and was not killed with those who were disobedient because of her faith (Heb. 11:31).Abraham instructed his wife, Sarah, to mislead the Egyptians and say that she is his sister (Gen. 12:10). Abraham's story was strictly true '' Sarah was his half sister '' but intentionally misleading because it was designed to lead the Egyptians to believe that Sarah was not Abraham's wife for Abraham feared that they would kill him in order to take her, for she was very beautiful.[69]In the New Testament, Jesus refers to the Devil as the father of lies (John 8:44) and Paul commands Christians "Do not lie to one another" (Col. 3:9; cf. Lev. 19:11). In the Day of Judgement, unrepentant liars will be punished in the lake of fire. (Rev. 21:8; 21:27).
    Augustine's taxonomy Augustine of Hippo wrote two books about lying: On Lying (De Mendacio) and Against Lying (Contra Mendacio).[70][71] He describes each book in his later work, Retractationes. Based on the location of De Mendacio in Retractationes, it appears to have been written about AD 395. The first work, On Lying, begins: "Magna qu...stio est de Mendacio" ("There is a great question about Lying"). From his text, it can be derived that St. Augustine divided lies into eight categories, listed in order of descending severity:
    Lies in religious teachingLies that harm others and help no oneLies that harm others and help someoneLies told for the pleasure of lyingLies told to "please others in smooth discourse"Lies that harm no one and that help someone materiallyLies that harm no one and that help someone spirituallyLies that harm no one and that protect someone from "bodily defilement"Despite distinguishing between lies according to their external severity, Augustine maintains in both treatises that all lies, defined precisely as the external communication of what one does not hold to be internally true, are categorically sinful and therefore, ethically impermissible.[72]
    Augustine wrote that lies told in jest, or by someone who believes or opines the lie to be true are not, in fact, lies.[73]
    In Buddhism The fourth of the five Buddhist precepts involves falsehood spoken or committed to by action.[74] Avoiding other forms of wrong speech are also considered part of this precept, consisting of malicious speech, harsh speech, and gossip.[75] A breach of the precept is considered more serious if the falsehood is motivated by an ulterior motive [74] (rather than, for example, "a small white lie"). The accompanying virtue is being honest and dependable,[78] and involves honesty in work, truthfulness to others, loyalty to superiors, and gratitude to benefactors. In Buddhist texts, this precept is considered most important next to the first precept, because a lying person is regarded to have no shame, and therefore capable of many wrongs. Lying is not only to be avoided because it harms others, but also because it goes against the Buddhist ideal of finding the truth.
    The fourth precept includes avoidance of lying and harmful speech.[83] Some modern Buddhist teachers such as Thich Nhat Hanh interpret this to include avoiding spreading false news and uncertain information. Work that involves data manipulation, false advertising, or online scams can also be regarded as violations.[84] Anthropologist Barend Terwiel [de] reports that among Thai Buddhists, the fourth precept also is seen to be broken when people insinuate, exaggerate, or speak abusively or deceitfully.[85]
    In Norse paganism In Gesta¾ttr, one of the sections within the Eddaic poem Hvaml, Odin states that it is advisable, when dealing with "a false foe who lies", to tell lies also.[86]
    In Zoroastrianism Darius I, imagined by a Greek painter, fourth century BCE
    Zoroaster teaches that there are two powers in the universe; Asha, which is truth, order, and that which is real, and Druj, which is "the Lie". Later on, the Lie became personified as Angra Mainyu, a figure similar to the Christian Devil, who was portrayed as the eternal opponent of Ahura Mazda (God).
    Herodotus, in his mid-fifth-century BC account of Persian residents of the Pontus, reports that Persian youths, from their fifth year to their twentieth year, were instructed in three things '' "to ride a horse, to draw a bow, and to speak the Truth".[87] He further notes that:[87] "The most disgraceful thing in the world [the Persians] think, is to tell a lie; the next worst, to owe a debt: because, among other reasons, the debtor is obliged to tell lies."
    In Achaemenid Persia, the lie, drauga (in Avestan: druj), is considered to be a cardinal sin and it was punishable by death in some extreme cases. Tablets discovered by archaeologists in the 1930s [88] at the site of Persepolis give us adequate evidence about the love and veneration for the culture of truth during the Achaemenian period. These tablets contain the names of ordinary Persians, mainly traders and warehouse-keepers.[89] According to Stanley Insler of Yale University, as many as 72 names of officials and petty clerks found on these tablets contain the word truth.[90] Thus, says Insler, we have Artapana, protector of truth, Artakama, lover of truth, Artamanah, truth-minded, Artafarnah, possessing splendour of truth, Artazusta, delighting in truth, Artastuna, pillar of truth, Artafrida, prospering the truth, and Artahunara, having nobility of truth.
    It was Darius the Great who laid down the "ordinance of good regulations" during his reign. Darius' testimony about his constant battle against the Lie is found in the Behistun Inscription. He testifies:[91] "I was not a lie-follower, I was not a doer of wrong ... According to righteousness I conducted myself. Neither to the weak or to the powerful did I do wrong. The man who cooperated with my house, him I rewarded well; who so did injury, him I punished well."
    He asks Ahuramazda, God, to protect the country from "a (hostile) army, from famine, from the Lie".[92]
    Darius had his hands full dealing with large-scale rebellion which broke out throughout the empire. After fighting successfully with nine traitors in a year, Darius records his battles against them for posterity and tells us how it was the Lie that made them rebel against the empire. At the Behistun inscription, Darius says: "I smote them and took prisoner nine kings. One was Gaumata by name, a Magian; he lied; thus he said: I am Smerdis, the son of Cyrus ... One, Acina by name, an Elamite; he lied; thus he said: I am king in Elam ... One, Nidintu-Bel by name, a Babylonian; he lied; thus he said: I am Nebuchadnezzar, the son of Nabonidus. ... The Lie made them rebellious, so that these men deceived the people."[93] Then advice to his son Xerxes, who is to succeed him as the great king: "Thou who shalt be king hereafter, protect yourself vigorously from the Lie; the man who shall be a lie-follower, him do thou punish well, if thus thou shall think. May my country be secure!"[citation needed ]
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PMID 19339257. ^ "Merriam''Webster.com". Merriam-webster.com. 31 August 2012. Archived from the original on 19 February 2010 . Retrieved 10 July 2013 . ^ "People.tribe.net". People.tribe.net. 19 August 2007. Archived from the original on 30 May 2013 . Retrieved 10 July 2013 . ^ Grieve, Rachel; Hayes, Jordana (1 January 2013). "Does perceived ability to deceive = ability to deceive? Predictive validity of the perceived ability to deceive (PATD) scale". Personality and Individual Differences. 54 (2): 311''314. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2012.09.001. ^ "Num. 23:19". Biblegateway.com. Archived from the original on 11 July 2019 . Retrieved 10 July 2013 . ^ "Hab. 2:3". Bible.cc. Archived from the original on 14 August 2011 . Retrieved 10 July 2013 . ^ "Heb 6:13''18". Soundofgrace.com. 10 November 1996. Archived from the original on 17 October 2010 . Retrieved 10 July 2013 . ^ "2 Thess. 2:11". Biblegateway.com. Archived from the original on 23 November 2018 . Retrieved 10 July 2013 . ^ "2 Thess. 2:11". Biblegateway.com. Archived from the original on 23 November 2018 . Retrieved 10 July 2013 . ^ "1 Kings 22:23". Bible.cc. Archived from the original on 15 May 2011 . Retrieved 10 July 2013 . ^ "Ezek. 14:9". Bible.cc. Archived from the original on 22 November 2011 . Retrieved 10 July 2013 . ^ See also: O'Neill, Barry. (2003). "A Formal System for Understanding Lies and Deceit." Archived 28 February 2008 at the Wayback Machine Revision of a talk for the Jerusalem Conference on Biblical Economics, June 2000. ^ "Genesis 12:11 '' "When he was about to enter Egypt, he said to Sarai his wife, 'I know that you are a woman'"". ESVBible.org . Retrieved 10 July 2013 . ^ Saint Augustine (2002). Deferrari, Roy J. (ed.). Treatises on various subjects. Translated by Mary Sarah Muldowney (1st pbk. reprint ed.). New York: Catholic University of America Press. ISBN 978-0813213200. Archived from the original on 3 February 2017 . Retrieved 3 February 2016 . ^ Schaff, Philip (1887). A Select Library of the Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers of the Christian Church: St. Augustin: On the Holy Trinity. Doctrinal treatises. Moral treatises. The Christian Literature Company. ^ "Church Fathers: On Lying (St. Augustine)". Archived from the original on 26 September 2010 . Retrieved 30 December 2016 . ^ Imre, Robert; Mooney, T. Brian; Clarke, Benjamin (2008). Responding to terrorism: political, philosophical and legal perspectives ([Online-Ausg.] ed.). Aldershot, Hampshire, England: Ashgate. ISBN 978-0754672777. Archived from the original on 3 February 2017 . Retrieved 3 February 2016 . ^ a b Leaman, Oliver (2000). Eastern Philosophy: Key Readings (PDF) . Routledge. p. 140. ISBN 978-0-415-17357-5. Archived (PDF) from the original on 8 August 2017. ^ Segall, Seth Robert (2003). "Psychotherapy Practice as Buddhist Practice". In Segall, Seth Robert (ed.). Encountering Buddhism: Western Psychology and Buddhist Teachings. State University of New York Press. p. 169. ISBN 978-0-7914-8679-5. ^ Cozort, Daniel (2015). "Ethics". In Powers, John (ed.). The Buddhist World. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-317-42016-3. ^ Powers, John (2013). A Concise Encyclopedia of Buddhism. Oneworld Publications. ISBN 978-1-78074-476-6. ^ Johansen, Barry-Craig P.; Gopalakrishna, D. (21 July 2016). "A Buddhist View of Adult Learning in the Workplace". Advances in Developing Human Resources. 8 (3): 342. doi:10.1177/1523422306288426. S2CID 145131162. ^ Terwiel, Barend Jan (2012). Monks and Magic: Revisiting a Classic Study of Religious Ceremonies in Thailand (PDF) . Nordic Institute of Asian Studies. p. 183. ISBN 978-8776941017. Archived (PDF) from the original on 19 August 2018. ^ "VTA.gamall-steinn.org". VTA.gamall-steinn.org. Archived from the original on 12 September 2005 . Retrieved 10 July 2013 . ^ a b Herodotus (2009). The Histories. Translated by George Rawlinson. Digireads.Com. pp. 43''44. ISBN 978-1420933055. ^ Garrison, Mark B.; Root, Margaret C. (2001). Seals on the Persepolis Fortification Tablets, Volume 1. Images of Heroic Encounter (OIP 117) . Chicago: Online Oriental Institute Publications. Archived from the original on 5 January 2007 . Retrieved 9 January 2007 . ^ Dandamayev, Muhammad (2002). "Persepolis Elamite Tablets". Encyclopedia Iranica. Archived from the original on 21 January 2012 . Retrieved 1 November 2013 . ^ Insler, Stanley (1975). "The Love of Truth in Ancient Iran". Archived from the original on 5 May 2007 . Retrieved 9 January 2007 . In Insler, Stanley; Duchesne-Guillemin, J., eds. (1975). The GÄthÄs of Zarathustra (Acta Iranica 8). Liege: Brill. ^ Brian Carr; Brian Carr; Indira Mahalingam (1997). Companino Encyclopedia of Asian philosophy. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-0415035354. ^ DPd inscription, lines 12''24: "Darius the King says: May Ahuramazda bear me aid, with the gods of the royal house; and may Ahuramazda protect this country from a (hostile) army, from famine, from the Lie! Upon this country may there not come an army, nor famine, nor the Lie; this I pray as a boon from Ahuramazda together with the gods of the royal house. This boon may Ahuramazda together with the gods of the royal house give to me! " ^ "Darius, Behishtan (DB), Column 1". Archived from the original on 19 July 2017 . Retrieved 27 July 2015 . From Kent, Roland G. (1953). Old Persian: Grammar, texts, lexicon. New Haven: American Oriental Society. General and cited sources Further reading Adler, J. E. "Lying, deceiving, or falsely implicating," Journal of Philosophy, Vol. 94 (1997), 435''452.Aquinas, St. T. "Question 110: Lying," in Summa Theologiae (II.II), Vol. 41, Virtues of Justice in the Human Community (London, 1972).Augustine, St. "On Lying" and "Against Lying," in R.J. Deferrari, ed., Treatises on Various Subjects (New York, 1952).Bok, S. Lying: Moral Choice in Public and Private Life, 2d ed. (New York, 1989).Carson, Thomas L. (2006). "The Definition of Lying". No>>s. 40 (2): 284''306. doi:10.1111/j.0029-4624.2006.00610.x. S2CID 143729366. Chisholm, R.M.; Feehan, T.D. (1977). "The intent to deceive". Journal of Philosophy. 74 (3): 143''159. doi:10.2307/2025605. JSTOR 2025605. Davids, P.H.; Bruce, F.F.; Brauch, M.T. & W.C. Kaiser, Hard Sayings of the Bible (InterVarsity Press, 1996).Denery, Dallas G. II. The Devil Wins: A History of Lying From the Garden of Eden to the Enlightenment (Princeton University Press; 2014) 352 pages; Uses religious, philosophical, literary and other sources in a study of lying from the perspectives of God, the Devil, theologians, courtiers, and women.Fallis, Don (2009). "What is Lying?". Journal of Philosophy. 106 (1): 29''56. doi:10.5840/jphil200910612. SSRN 1601034. Frankfurt, H.G. "The Faintest Passion," in Necessity, Volition and Love (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999).Hausman, Carl, "Lies We Live By," (New York: Routledge, 2000).Kant, I. Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals, The Metaphysics of Morals and "On a supposed right to lie from philanthropy," in Immanuel Kant, Practical Philosophy, eds. Mary Gregor and Allen W. Wood (Cambridge: CUP, 1986).Lakoff, George, Don't Think of an Elephant, (Chelsea Green Publishing, 2004).Leslie I. Born Liars: Why We Can't Live Without Deceit (2011)Mahon, J.E. "Kant on Lies, Candour and Reticence," Kantian Review, Vol. 7 (2003), 101''133.Mahon, J.E., "Lying," Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2nd ed., Vol. 5 (Farmington Hills, MI: Macmillan Reference, 2006), 618''619.Mahon, J.E. "Kant and the Perfect Duty to Others Not to Lie," British Journal for the History of Philosophy, Vol. 14, No. 4 (2006), 653''685.Mahon, J.E. "Kant and Maria von Herbert: Reticence vs. Deception," Philosophy, Vol. 81, No. 3 (2006), 417''444.Mannison, D.S. "Lying and Lies," Australasian Journal of Philosophy, Vol. 47 (1969), 132''144.Maugh II, Thomas H. (1 April 1991). "Science / Medicine : The Lies That Bind: Nearly All Species Deceive : Life: Deception is not only useful, experts say, it is often a necessity that allows organisms to survive". Los Angeles Times . Retrieved 11 March 2021 . Mount, Ferdinand, "Ruthless and Truthless" (review of Peter Oborne, The Assault on Truth: Boris Johnson, Donald Trump and the Emergence of a New Moral Barbarism, Simon and Schuster, 2021, ISBN 978-1398501003, 192 pp.; and Colin Kidd and Jacqueline Rose, eds., Political Advice: Past, Present and Future, I.B. Tauris, 2021, ISBN 978-1838600044, 240 pp.), London Review of Books, vol. 43, no. 9 (6 May 2021), pp. 3, 5''8.Siegler, F.A. "Lying," American Philosophical Quarterly, Vol. 3 (1966), 128''136.Sorensen, Roy (2007). "Bald-Faced Lies! Lying Without the Intent to Deceive". Pacific Philosophical Quarterly. 88 (2): 251''264. doi:10.1111/j.1468-0114.2007.00290.x. Stokke, Andreas (2013). "Lying and Asserting". Journal of Philosophy. 110 (1): 33''60. doi:10.5840/jphil2013110144. SSRN 1601034. Margaret Talbot (2007). "Duped. Can brain scans uncover lies?". The New Yorker, 2 July 2007.External links Look up
    liar or
    lie in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
    Wikiquote has quotations related to
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    Rines, George Edwin, ed. (1920). "Lie" . Encyclopedia Americana.
  White lie Definition & Meaning - Merriam-Webster
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    : a lie about a small or unimportant matter that someone tells to avoid hurting another person He told a (little) white lie as his excuse for missing the party. Example Sentences Recent Examples on the Web This may be a little white lie; however, it's made to appease your boss and HR, and help keep the peace. '-- Jack Kelly, Forbes, 19 Apr. 2023 These examples are programmatically compiled from various online sources to illustrate current usage of the word 'white lie.' Any opinions expressed in the examples do not represent those of Merriam-Webster or its editors. Send us feedback about these examples.
    Dictionary Entries Near white lie Cite this Entry ''White lie.'' Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/white%20lie. Accessed 7 Jun. 2023.
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  Hippie - Wikipedia
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    Person associated with 1960s counterculture
    Young people near the
    Woodstock music festival in August 1969
    A hippie, also spelled hippy,[1] especially in British English,[2] is someone associated with the counterculture of the 1960s, originally a youth movement that began in the United States during the mid-1960s and spread to different countries around the world.[3] The word hippie came from hipster and was used to describe beatniks[4] who moved into New York City's Greenwich Village, in San Francisco's Haight-Ashbury district, and Chicago's Old Town community. The term hippie was used in print by San Francisco writer Michael Fallon, helping popularize use of the term in the media, although the tag was seen elsewhere earlier.[5][6]
    The origins of the terms hip and hep are uncertain. By the 1940s, both had become part of African American jive slang and meant "sophisticated; currently fashionable; fully up-to-date".[7][8][9] The Beats adopted the term hip, and early hippies adopted the language and countercultural values of the Beat Generation. Hippies created their own communities, listened to psychedelic music, embraced the sexual revolution, and many used drugs such as marijuana and LSD to explore altered states of consciousness.[10][11]
    In 1967, the Human Be-In in Golden Gate Park, San Francisco, and the Monterey International Pop Festival[12]popularized hippie culture, leading to the Summer of Love on the West Coast of the United States, and the 1969 Woodstock Festival on the East Coast. Hippies in Mexico, known as jipitecas, formed La Onda and gathered at Avndaro, while in New Zealand, nomadic housetruckers practiced alternative lifestyles and promoted sustainable energy at Nambassa. In the United Kingdom in 1970, many gathered at the gigantic third Isle of Wight Festival with a crowd of around 400,000 people.[13] In later years, mobile "peace convoys" of New Age travellers made summer pilgrimages to free music festivals at Stonehenge and elsewhere. In Australia, hippies gathered at Nimbin for the 1973 Aquarius Festival and the annual Cannabis Law Reform Rally or MardiGrass. "Piedra Roja Festival", a major hippie event in Chile, was held in 1970.[14] Hippie and psychedelic culture influenced 1960s and early 1970s youth culture in Iron Curtain countries in Eastern Europe (see MniÄka).[15]
    Hippie fashion and values had a major effect on culture, influencing popular music, television, film, literature, and the arts. Since the 1960s, mainstream society has assimilated many aspects of hippie culture. The religious and cultural diversity the hippies espoused has gained widespread acceptance, and their pop versions of Eastern philosophy and Asiatic spiritual concepts have reached a larger group.
    The vast majority of people who had participated in the golden age of the hippie movement were those born during the 1940s and early 1950s. These include the youngest of the Silent Generation and oldest of the Baby Boomers; the former who were the actual leaders of the movement as well as the early pioneers of rock music.[16]
    Etymology [ edit ] Lexicographer Jesse Sheidlower, the principal American editor of the Oxford English Dictionary, argues that the terms hipster and hippie are derived from the word hip, whose origins are unknown.[17] The word hip in the sense of "aware, in the know" is first attested in a 1902 cartoon by Tad Dorgan,[18] and first appeared in prose in a 1904 novel by George Vere Hobart[19] (1867''1926), Jim Hickey: A Story of the One-Night Stands, where an African-American character uses the slang phrase "Are you hip?"
    The term hipster was coined by Harry Gibson in 1944.[20] By the 1940s, the terms hip, hep and hepcat were popular in Harlem jazz slang, although hep eventually came to denote an inferior status to hip.[21] In Greenwich Village in the early 1960s, New York City, young counterculture advocates were named hips because they were considered "in the know" or "cool", as opposed to being square, meaning conventional and old-fashioned. In the April 27, 1961 issue of The Village Voice, "An open letter to JFK & Fidel Castro", Norman Mailer utilizes the term hippies, in questioning JFK's behavior. In a 1961 essay, Kenneth Rexroth used both the terms hipster and hippies to refer to young people participating in black American or Beatnik nightlife.[22] According to Malcolm X's 1964 autobiography, the word hippie in 1940s Harlem had been used to describe a specific type of white man who "acted more Negro than Negroes".[23] Andrew Loog Oldham refers to "all the Chicago hippies," seemingly about black blues/R&B musicians, in his rear sleeve notes to the 1965 LP The Rolling Stones, Now!
    Although the word hippies made other isolated appearances in print during the early 1960s, the first use of the term on the West Coast appeared in the article "A New Paradise for Beatniks" (in the San Francisco Examiner, issue of September 5, 1965) by San Francisco journalist Michael Fallon. In that article, Fallon wrote about the Blue Unicorn Cafe (coffeehouse) (located at 1927 Hayes Street in the Haight-Ashbury district of San Francisco), using the term hippie to refer to the new generation of beatniks who had moved from North Beach into the Haight-Ashbury district.[24][25]
    History [ edit ] Origins [ edit ] A July 1968 Time magazine study on hippie philosophy credited the foundation of the hippie movement with historical precedent as far back as the sadhu of India, the spiritual seekers who had renounced the world and materialistic pursuits by taking "Sannyas". Even the counterculture of the Ancient Greeks, espoused by philosophers like Diogenes of Sinope and the cynics were also early forms of hippie culture.[26] It also named as notable influences the religious and spiritual teachings of Buddha, Hillel the Elder, Jesus, St. Francis of Assisi, Henry David Thoreau, Gandhi and J.R.R. Tolkien.[26]
    The first signs of modern "proto-hippies" emerged at the turn of the 19th century in Europe. Late 1890s to early 1900s, a German youth movement arose as a countercultural reaction to the organized social and cultural clubs that centered around "German folk music". Known as Der Wandervogel ("wandering bird"), this hippie movement opposed the formality of traditional German clubs, instead emphasizing folk music and singing, creative dress, and outdoor life involving hiking and camping.[27] Inspired by the works of Goethe, Friedrich Nietzsche, and Hermann Hesse, Wandervogel attracted thousands of young Germans who rejected the rapid trend toward urbanization and yearned for the pagan, back-to-nature spiritual life of their ancestors.[28] During the first several decades of the 20th century, Germans settled around the United States, bringing the values of this German youth culture. Some opened the first health food stores, and many moved to southern California where they introduced an alternative lifestyle. One group, called the "Nature Boys", took to the California desert and raised organic food, espousing a back-to-nature lifestyle like the Wandervogel.[29] Songwriter eden ahbez wrote a hit song called Nature Boy inspired by Robert Bootzin (Gypsy Boots), who helped popularize health-consciousness, yoga, and organic food in the United States.
    Beatniks posing in front of a piece of beatnik art, 1959. The
    Beat Generation are seen as a predecessor to the hippie movement
    The hippie movement in the United States began as a youth movement. Composed mostly of white teenagers and young adults between 15 and 25 years old,[30][31] hippies inherited a tradition of cultural dissent from bohemians and beatniks of the Beat Generation in the late 1950s.[31] Beats like Allen Ginsberg crossed over from the beat movement and became fixtures of the burgeoning hippie and anti-war movements. By 1965, hippies had become an established social group in the U.S., and the movement eventually expanded to other countries,[32][33] extending as far as the United Kingdom and Europe, Australia, Canada, New Zealand, Japan, Mexico, and Brazil.[34] The hippie ethos influenced The Beatles and others in the United Kingdom and other parts of Europe, and they in turn influenced their American counterparts.[35] Hippie culture spread worldwide through a fusion of rock music, folk, blues, and psychedelic rock; it also found expression in literature, the dramatic arts, fashion, and the visual arts, including film, posters advertising rock concerts, and album covers.[36] In 1968, self-described hippies represented just under 0.2% of the U.S. population[37] and dwindled away by mid-1970s.[32]
    Along with the New Left and the Civil Rights Movement, the hippie movement was one of three dissenting groups of the 1960s counterculture.[33] Hippies rejected established institutions, criticized middle class values, opposed nuclear weapons and the Vietnam War, embraced aspects of Eastern philosophy,[38] championed sexual liberation, were often vegetarian and eco-friendly, promoted the use of psychedelic drugs which they believed expanded one's consciousness, and created intentional communities or communes. They used alternative arts, street theatre, folk music, and psychedelic rock as a part of their lifestyle and as a way of expressing their feelings, their protests, and their vision of the world and life. Hippies opposed political and social orthodoxy, choosing a gentle and nondoctrinaire ideology that favored peace, love, and personal freedom,[39][40] expressed for example in The Beatles' song "All You Need is Love".[41] Hippies perceived the dominant culture as a corrupt, monolithic entity that exercised undue power over their lives, calling this culture "The Establishment", "Big Brother", or "The Man".[42][43][44] Noting that they were "seekers of meaning and value", scholars like Timothy Miller have described hippies as a new religious movement.[45]
    There are echoes of the term "hippie" in "preppy" (with particular cultural currency as a 1950s fashion trend) and "yuppie" (1980s), both of which embraced rather than rejected establishment culture.
    1958''1967: Early hippies [ edit ] Escapin' through the lily fieldsI came across an empty spaceIt trembled and explodedLeft a bus stop in its placeThe bus came by and I got onThat's when it all beganThere was cowboy NealAt the wheelOf a bus to never-ever land
    ''
    Grateful Dead, lyrics from "That's It for the Other One"
    [46]During the late 1950s and early 1960s, novelist Ken Kesey and the Merry Pranksters lived communally first in Oregon and after the 1962 success of his novel One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest (novel) in his San Francisco villa. Members included Beat Generation hero Neal Cassady, Ken Babbs, Carolyn Adams (aka Mountain Girl/Carolyn Garcia), Stewart Brand, Del Close, Paul Foster, George Walker, Sandy Lehmann-Haupt and others. Their adventures were documented in Tom Wolfe's book The Electric Kool-Aid Acid Test. With Cassady at the wheel of a school bus named Further, the Merry Pranksters traveled across the United States to celebrate the publication of Kesey's novel Sometimes a Great Notion and to visit the 1964 World's Fair in New York City. The Merry Pranksters were known for using cannabis, amphetamine, and LSD, and during their journey they "turned on" many people to these drugs. The Merry Pranksters filmed and audio-taped their bus trips, creating an immersive multimedia experience that would later be presented to the public in the form of festivals and concerts. The Grateful Dead wrote a song about the Merry Pranksters' bus trips called "That's It for the Other One".[46]
    In 1961, Vito Paulekas and his wife Szou established in Hollywood a clothing boutique which was credited with being one of the first to introduce "hippie" fashions.[47][48][49]
    During this period Greenwich Village in New York City and Berkeley, California anchored the American folk music circuit.
    Berkeley's two coffee houses, "the Cabale Creamery" and "the Jabberwock", sponsored performances by folk music artists in a beat setting.[50]
    In April 1963, Chandler A. Laughlin III, co-founder of the Cabale Creamery,[51] established a kind of tribal, family identity among approximately fifty people who attended a traditional, all-night Native American peyote ceremony in a rural setting. This ceremony combined a psychedelic experience with traditional Native American spiritual values; these people went on to sponsor a unique genre of musical expression and performance at the "Red Dog Saloon" in the isolated, old-time mining town of Virginia City, Nevada.[52]
    During the summer of 1965, Laughlin recruited much of the original talent that led to a unique amalgam of traditional folk music and the developing psychedelic rock scene.[52] He and his cohorts created at this very place what became known as "The Red Dog Experience", featuring previously unknown musical acts'--Grateful Dead, Jefferson Airplane, Big Brother and the Holding Company, Quicksilver Messenger Service, The Charlatans, and others'--who played in the completely refurbished, intimate setting of Nevada, Virginia City's "Red Dog Saloon". There was no clear delineation between "performers" and "audience" in "The Red Dog Experience", during which music, psychedelic experimentation, a unique sense of personal style, and Bill Ham's first primitive light shows combined to create a new sense of community.[53] Laughlin and George Hunter of the Charlatans were true "proto-hippies", with their long hair, boots, and outrageous clothing of 19th-century American (and Native American) heritage.[52] LSD manufacturer Owsley Stanley lived in Berkeley during 1965 and provided much of the LSD that became a seminal part of the "Red Dog Experience", the early evolution of psychedelic rock and budding hippie culture. At the "Red Dog Saloon", The Charlatans were the first psychedelic rock band to play live (albeit unintentionally) loaded on LSD.[54]
    When they returned to San Francisco, "Red Dog" participants Luria Castell, Ellen Harman and Alton Kelley created a collective called "The Family Dog."[52] Modeled on their "Red Dog experiences", on October 16, 1965, the "Family Dog" hosted "A Tribute to Dr. Strange" at Longshoreman's Hall.[55] Attended by approximately one thousand of the Bay Area's original "hippies", this was San Francisco's first psychedelic rock performance, costumed dance and light show, featuring Jefferson Airplane, The Great Society and The Marbles.[56] Two other events followed before year's end, one at "California Hall" and one at "the Matrix".[52] After the first three "Family Dog" events, a much larger psychedelic event occurred at San Francisco's "Longshoreman's Hall". Called "The Trips Festival", it took place on January 21 '' 23, 1966, and was organized by Stewart Brand, Ken Kesey, Owsley Stanley and others. Ten thousand people attended this sold-out event, with a thousand more turned away each night.[57] On Saturday January 22, the Grateful Dead and Big Brother and the Holding Company came on stage, and six thousand people arrived to imbibe punch spiked with LSD and to witness one of the first fully developed light shows of the era.[58]
    It is nothing new. We have a private revolution going on. A revolution of individuality and diversity that can only be private. Upon becoming a group movement, such a revolution ends up with imitators rather than participants...It is essentially a striving for realization of one's relationship to life and other people...
    Bob Stubbs, "Unicorn Philosophy"[59]
    By February 1966, the "Family Dog" became "Family Dog Productions" under organizer Chet Helms, promoting happenings at the Avalon Ballroom and the Fillmore Auditorium in initial cooperation with Bill Graham. The Avalon Ballroom, the Fillmore Auditorium, and other venues provided settings where participants could partake of the full psychedelic music experience. Bill Ham, who had pioneered the original "Red Dog" light shows, perfected his art of liquid light projection, which combined light shows and film projection and became synonymous with the "San Francisco ballroom experience".[52][60] The sense of style and costume that began at the "Red Dog Saloon" flourished when San Francisco's Fox Theater went out of business and hippies bought up its costume stock, reveling in the freedom to dress up for weekly musical performances at their favorite ballrooms. As San Francisco Chronicle music columnist Ralph J. Gleason put it, "They danced all night long, orgiastic, spontaneous and completely free form."[52]
    Some of the earliest San Francisco hippies were former students at San Francisco State College[61] who became intrigued by the developing psychedelic hippie music scene.[52] These students joined the bands they loved, living communally in the large, inexpensive Victorian apartments in the Haight-Ashbury.[62] Young Americans around the country began moving to San Francisco, and by June 1966, around 15,000 hippies had moved into the Haight.[63] The Charlatans, Jefferson Airplane, Big Brother and the Holding Company, and the Grateful Dead all moved to San Francisco's Haight-Ashbury neighborhood during this period. Activity centered around the Diggers, a guerrilla street theatre group that combined spontaneous street theatre, anarchistic action, and art happenings in their agenda to create a "free city". By late 1966, the Diggers opened free stores which simply gave away their stock, provided free food, distributed free drugs, gave away money, organized free music concerts, and performed works of political art.[64]
    On October 6, 1966, the state of California declared LSD a controlled substance, which made the drug illegal.[65] In response to the criminalization of LSD, San Francisco hippies staged a gathering in the Golden Gate Park panhandle, called the Love Pageant Rally,[65] attracting an estimated 700''800 people.[66] As explained by Allan Cohen, co-founder of the San Francisco Oracle, the purpose of the rally was twofold: to draw attention to the fact that LSD had just been made illegal'--and to demonstrate that people who used LSD were not criminals, nor were they mentally ill. The Grateful Dead played, and some sources claim that LSD was consumed at the rally. According to Cohen, those who took LSD "were not guilty of using illegal substances...We were celebrating transcendental consciousness, the beauty of the universe, the beauty of being."[67]
    In West Hollywood, California, the Sunset Strip curfew riots, also known as the "hippie riots", were a series of early counterculture-era clashes that took place between police and young people in 1966 and continuing on and off through the early 1970s. In 1966, annoyed residents and business owners in the district had encouraged the passage of strict (10:00 p.m.) curfew and loitering laws to reduce the traffic congestion resulting from crowds of young club patrons.[68] This was perceived by young, local rock music fans as an infringement on their civil rights, and on Saturday, November 12, 1966, fliers were distributed along the Strip inviting people to demonstrate later that day. Hours before the protest one of the rock 'n' roll radio stations in L.A. announced there would be a rally at Pandora's Box, a club at the corner of Sunset Boulevard and Crescent Heights, and cautioned people to tread carefully.[69] The Los Angeles Times reported that as many as 1,000 youthful demonstrators, including such celebrities as Jack Nicholson and Peter Fonda (who was afterward handcuffed by police), erupted in protest against the perceived repressive enforcement of these recently invoked curfew laws.[68] This incident provided the basis for the 1967 low-budget teen exploitation film Riot on Sunset Strip, and inspired multiple songs including the famous Buffalo Springfield song "For What It's Worth".[70]
    1967: Human Be-In, Summer of Love, and rise to prevalence [ edit ] Junction of Haight and Ashbury Streets, San Francisco, celebrated as the central location of the Summer of Love
    On January 14, 1967, the outdoor Human Be-In organized by Michael Bowen[71] helped to popularize hippie culture across the United States, with 20,000 to 30,000 hippies gathering in San Francisco's Golden Gate Park.
    On March 26, 1967, Lou Reed, Edie Sedgwick and 10,000 hippies came together in Manhattan for the Central Park Be-In on Easter Sunday.[72]
    The Monterey Pop Festival from June 16 to June 18 1967 introduced the rock music of the counterculture to a wide audience and marked the start of the "Summer of Love".[73]
    Scott McKenzie's rendition of John Phillips' song, "San Francisco", became a hit in the United States and Europe. The lyrics, "If you're going to San Francisco, be sure to wear some flowers in your hair", inspired thousands of young people from all over the world to travel to San Francisco, sometimes wearing flowers in their hair and distributing flowers to passersby, earning them the name, "Flower Children". Bands like the Grateful Dead, Big Brother and the Holding Company (with Janis Joplin), and Jefferson Airplane lived in the Haight.
    According to the hippies, LSD was the glue that held the Haight together. It was the hippie sacrament, a mind detergent capable of washing away years of social programming, a re-imprinting device, a consciousness-expander, a tool that would push us up the evolutionary ladder.
    Jay Stevens[74]
    In June 1967, Herb Caen was approached by "a distinguished magazine"[75] to write about why hippies were attracted to San Francisco. He declined the assignment but interviewed hippies in the Haight for his own newspaper column in the San Francisco Chronicle. Caen determined that, "Except in their music, they couldn't care less about the approval of the straight world."[75] Caen himself felt that the city of San Francisco was so straight that it provided a visible contrast with hippie culture.[75]
    On July 7, 1967 Time magazine featured a cover story entitled, "The Hippies: The Philosophy of a Subculture." The article described the guidelines of the hippie code:
    "Do your own thing, wherever you have to do it and whenever you want. Drop out. Leave society as you have known it. Leave it utterly. Blow the mind of every straight person you can reach. Turn them on, if not to drugs, then to beauty, love, honesty, fun."
    [76]
    It is estimated that around 100,000 people traveled to San Francisco in the summer of 1967. The media was right behind them, casting a spotlight on the Haight-Ashbury district and popularizing the "hippie" label. With this increased attention, hippies found support for their ideals of love and peace but were also criticized for their anti-work, pro-drug, and permissive ethos.[citation needed ]
    At this point, The Beatles had released their groundbreaking album Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band which was quickly embraced by the hippie movement with its colorful psychedelic sonic imagery.[78]
    In 1967 Chet Helms brought the Haight Ashbury hippie and psychedelic scene to Denver, when he opened the Family Dog Denver, modeled on his Avalon Ballroom in San Francisco. The music venue created a nexus for the hippie movement in the western-minded Denver, which led to serious conflicts with city leaders, parents and the police, who saw the hippie movement as dangerous. The resulting legal actions and pressure caused Helms and Bob Cohen to close the venue at the end of that year.[79]
    By the end of the summer, the Haight-Ashbury scene had deteriorated. The incessant media coverage led the Diggers to declare the "death" of the hippie with a parade.[80][81][82] According to poet Susan 'Stormi' Chambless, the hippies buried an effigy of a hippie in the Panhandle to demonstrate the end of his/her reign. Haight-Ashbury could not accommodate the influx of crowds (mostly naive youngsters) with no place to live. Many took to living on the street, panhandling and drug-dealing. There were problems with malnourishment, disease, and drug addiction. Crime and violence skyrocketed. None of these trends reflected what the hippies had envisioned.[83] By the end of 1967, many of the hippies and musicians who initiated the Summer of Love had moved on. Beatle George Harrison had once visited Haight-Ashbury and found it to be just a haven for dropouts, inspiring him to give up LSD.[84] Misgivings about the hippie culture, particularly with regard to substance use and lenient morality, fueled the moral panics of the late 1960s.[85]
    1967''1969: Revolution and peak of influence [ edit ] By 1968, hippie-influenced fashions were beginning to take off in the mainstream, especially for youths and younger adults of the populous baby boomer generation, many of whom may have aspired to emulate the hardcore movements now living in tribalistic communes, but had no overt connections to them. This was noticed not only in terms of clothes and also longer hair for men, but also in music, film, art, and literature, and not just in the US, but around the world. Eugene McCarthy's brief presidential campaign successfully persuaded a significant minority of young adults to "get clean for Gene" by shaving their beards or wearing longer skirts; however the "Clean Genes" had little impact on the popular image in the media spotlight, of the hirsute hippy adorned in beads, feathers, flowers and bells.
    A sign of this was the visibility that the hippie subculture gained in various mainstream and underground media. Hippie exploitation films are 1960s exploitation films about the hippie counterculture[86] with stereotypical situations associated with the movement such as cannabis and LSD use, sex and wild psychedelic parties. Examples include The Love-ins, Psych-Out, The Trip, and Wild in the Streets. Other more serious and more critically acclaimed films about the hippie counterculture also appeared such as Easy Rider and Alice's Restaurant. (See also: List of films related to the hippie subculture.) Documentaries and television programs have also been produced until today as well as fiction and nonfiction books. The popular Broadway musical Hair was presented in 1967.
    People commonly label other cultural movements of that period as hippie, however there are differences. For example, hippies were often not directly engaged in politics, as contrasted with "Yippies" (Youth International Party), an activist organization. The Yippies came to national attention during their celebration of the 1968 spring equinox, when some 3,000 of them took over Grand Central Terminal in New York'--eventually resulting in 61 arrests. The Yippies, especially their leaders Abbie Hoffman and Jerry Rubin, became notorious for their theatrics, such as trying to levitate the Pentagon at the October 1967 war protest, and such slogans as "Rise up and abandon the creeping meatball!" Their stated intention to protest the 1968 Democratic National Convention in Chicago in August, including nominating their own candidate, "Lyndon Pigasus Pig" (an actual pig), was also widely publicized in the media at this time.[87]
    In Cambridge, Massachusetts hippies congregated each Sunday for a large "be-in" at Cambridge Common with swarms of drummers and those beginning the Women's Movement. In the US the Hippie movement started to be seen as part of the "New Left" which was associated with anti-war college campus protest movements.[88] The New Left was a term used mainly in the United Kingdom and United States in reference to activists, educators, agitators and others in the 1960s and 1970s who sought to implement a broad range of reforms on issues such as gay rights, abortion, gender roles and drugs[88] in contrast to earlier leftist or Marxist movements that had taken a more vanguardist approach to social justice and focused mostly on labor unionization and questions of social class.[89][90]
    In April 1969, the building of People's Park in Berkeley, California received international attention. The University of California, Berkeley had demolished all the buildings on a 2.8-acre (11,000 m2) parcel near campus, intending to use the land to build playing fields and a parking lot. After a long delay, during which the site became a dangerous eyesore, thousands of ordinary Berkeley citizens, merchants, students, and hippies took matters into their own hands, planting trees, shrubs, flowers and grass to convert the land into a park. A major confrontation ensued on May 15, 1969, when Governor Ronald Reagan ordered the park destroyed, which led to a two-week occupation of the city of Berkeley by the California National Guard.[91][92] Flower power came into its own during this occupation as hippies engaged in acts of civil disobedience to plant flowers in empty lots all over Berkeley under the slogan "Let a Thousand Parks Bloom".
    In August 1969, the Woodstock Music and Art Fair took place in Bethel, New York, which for many, exemplified the best of hippie counterculture. Over 500,000 people arrived[93] to hear some of the most notable musicians and bands of the era, among them Canned Heat, Richie Havens, Joan Baez, Janis Joplin, The Grateful Dead, Creedence Clearwater Revival, Crosby, Stills, Nash & Young, Carlos Santana, Sly & The Family Stone, The Who, Jefferson Airplane, and Jimi Hendrix. Wavy Gravy's Hog Farm provided security and attended to practical needs, and the hippie ideals of love and human fellowship seemed to have gained real-world expression. Similar rock festivals occurred in other parts of the country, which played a significant role in spreading hippie ideals throughout America.[94]
    In December 1969, a rock festival took place in Altamont, California, about 45 km (30 miles ) east of San Francisco. Initially billed as "Woodstock West", its official name was The Altamont Free Concert. About 300,000 people gathered to hear The Rolling Stones; Crosby, Stills, Nash and Young; Jefferson Airplane and other bands. The Hells Angels provided security that proved far less benevolent than the security provided at the Woodstock event: 18-year-old Meredith Hunter was stabbed and killed by one of the Hells Angels during The Rolling Stones' performance after he brandished a gun and waved it toward the stage.[95]
    1969''present: Aftershocks, absorption into the mainstream, and new developments [ edit ] By the 1970s, the 1960s zeitgeist that had spawned hippie culture seemed to be on the wane.[96][97][98] The events at Altamont Free Concert shocked many Americans,[99] including those who had strongly identified with hippie culture. Another shock came in the form of the Sharon Tate and Leno and Rosemary LaBianca murders committed in August 1969 by Charles Manson and his "family" of followers. Nevertheless, the turbulent political atmosphere that featured the bombing of Cambodia and shootings by National Guardsmen at Jackson State University and Kent State University still brought people together. These shootings inspired the May 1970 song by Quicksilver Messenger Service "What About Me?", where they sang, "You keep adding to my numbers as you shoot my people down", as well as Neil Young's "Ohio", a song that protested the Kent State massacre, recorded by Crosby, Stills, Nash and Young.
    Much of hippie style had been integrated into mainstream American society by the early 1970s.[100][101] Large rock concerts that originated with the 1967 KFRC Fantasy Fair and Magic Mountain Music Festival and Monterey Pop Festival and the British Isle of Wight Festival in 1968 became the norm, evolving into stadium rock in the process. The anti-war movement reached its peak at the 1971 May Day Protests as over 12,000 protesters were arrested in Washington, D.C.; President Nixon himself actually ventured out of the White House and chatted with a group of the hippie protesters. The draft was ended soon thereafter, in January 1973. During the mid-late 1970s, with the end of the draft and the Vietnam War, a renewal of patriotic sentiment associated with the approach of the United States Bicentennial, the decline in popularity of psychedelic rock, and the emergence of new genres such as prog rock, heavy metal, disco, and punk rock, the mainstream media lost interest in the hippie counterculture. At the same time there was a revival of the Mod subculture, skinheads, teddy boys and the emergence of new youth cultures, like the punks, goths (an arty offshoot of punk), and football casuals; starting in the late 1960s in Britain, hippies had begun to come under attack by skinheads.[102][103][104]
    A group of hippies in
    Tallinn, 1989
    Couple attending Snoqualmie Moondance Festival, August 1993
    Many hippies would adapt and become members of the growing countercultural New Age movement of the 1970s. While many hippies made a long-term commitment to the lifestyle, some people argue that hippies "sold out" during the 1980s and became part of the materialist, self-centered consumer yuppie culture.[106][107] Although not as visible as it once was, hippie culture has never died out completely: hippies and neo-hippies can still be found on college campuses, on communes, and at gatherings and festivals. Many embrace the hippie values of peace, love, and community, and hippies may still be found in bohemian enclaves around the world.[34] Hippie communes, where members tried to live the ideals of the hippie movement, continued to flourish. On the west coast, Oregon had quite a few.[108] Around 1994, a new term "Zippie" was being used to describe hippies that had embraced New Age beliefs, new technology, and a love for electronic music.[109]
    Ethos and characteristics [ edit ] Tie-dyed clothes, associated with hippie culture
    The bohemian predecessor of the hippie culture in San Francisco was the "Beat Generation" style of coffee houses and bars, whose clientele appreciated literature, a game of chess, music (in the forms of jazz and folk style), modern dance, and traditional crafts and arts like pottery and painting."[110] The entire tone of the new subculture was different. Jon McIntire, manager of the Grateful Dead from the late 1960s to the mid-1980s, points out that the great contribution of the hippie culture was this projection of joy. "The beatnik thing was black, cynical, and cold."[111] Hippies sought to free themselves from societal restrictions, choose their own way, and find new meaning in life. One expression of hippie independence from societal norms was found in their standard of dress and grooming, which made hippies instantly recognizable to one another, and served as a visual symbol of their respect for individual rights. Through their appearance, hippies declared their willingness to question authority, and distanced themselves from the "straight" and "square" (i.e., conformist) segments of society.[112] Personality traits and values that hippies tend to be associated with are "altruism and mysticism, honesty, joy and nonviolence".[113]
    At the same time, many thoughtful hippies distanced themselves from the very idea that the way a person dresses could be a reliable signal of who he or she was'--especially after outright criminals such as Charles Manson began to adopt superficial hippie characteristics, and also after plainclothes policemen started to "dress like hippies" to divide and conquer legitimate members of the counterculture. Frank Zappa, known for lampooning hippie ethos, particularly with songs like "Who Needs the Peace Corps?" (1968), admonished his audience that "we all wear a uniform". The San Francisco clown/hippie Wavy Gravy said in 1987 that he could still see fellow-feeling in the eyes of Market Street businessmen who had dressed conventionally to survive.[114]
    Art and fashion [ edit ] A 1967
    VW Kombi bus decorated with hand-painting
    Leading proponents of the 1960s Psychedelic Art movement were San Francisco poster artists such as: Rick Griffin, Victor Moscoso, Bonnie MacLean, Stanley Mouse & Alton Kelley, and Wes Wilson. Their Psychedelic Rock concert posters were inspired by Art Nouveau, Victoriana, Dada, and Pop Art. Posters for concerts in the Fillmore West, a concert auditorium in San Francisco, popular with Hippie audiences, were among the most notable of the time. Richly saturated colors in glaring contrast, elaborately ornate lettering, strongly symmetrical composition, collage elements, rubber-like distortions, and bizarre iconography are all hallmarks of the San Francisco psychedelic poster art style. The style flourished from roughly the years 1966 until 1972. Their work was immediately influential to album cover art, and indeed all of the aforementioned artists also created album covers.
    Psychedelic light-shows were a new art-form developed for rock concerts. Using oil and dye in an emulsion that was set between large convex lenses upon overhead projectors, the lightshow artists created bubbling liquid visuals that pulsed in rhythm to the music. This was mixed with slide shows and film loops to create an improvisational motion picture art form, and to give visual representation to the improvisational jams of the rock bands and create a completely "trippy" atmosphere for the audience.[citation needed ]The Brotherhood of Light were responsible for many of the light-shows in San Francisco psychedelic rock concerts.
    Out of the psychedelic counterculture there also arose a new genre of comic books: underground comix. Zap Comix was among the original underground comics, and featured the work of Robert Crumb, S. Clay Wilson, Victor Moscoso, Rick Griffin, and Robert Williams among others. Underground comix were ribald, intensely satirical, and seemed to pursue weirdness for the sake of weirdness. Gilbert Shelton created perhaps the most enduring of underground cartoon characters, The Fabulous Furry Freak Brothers, whose drugged-out exploits held a mirror up to the hippie lifestyle of the 1960s.
    As in the beat movement preceding them, and the punk movement that followed soon after, hippie symbols and iconography were purposely borrowed from either "low" or "primitive" cultures, with hippie fashion reflecting a disorderly, often vagrant style.[115] As with other adolescent, whitebread middle-class movements, deviant behavior of the hippies involved challenging the prevailing gender differences of their time: both men and women in the hippie movement wore jeans and maintained long hair,[116] and both genders wore sandals, moccasins or went barefoot.[63] Men often wore beards,[117] while women wore little or no makeup, with many going braless.[63] Hippies often chose brightly colored clothing and wore unusual styles, such as bell-bottom pants, vests, tie-dyed garments, dashikis, peasant blouses, and long, full skirts; non-Western inspired clothing with Native American, Latin American, African and Asiatic motifs were also popular. Much hippie clothing was self-made in defiance of corporate culture, and hippies often purchased their clothes from flea markets and second-hand shops.[117] Favored accessories for both men and women included Native American jewelry, head scarves, headbands and long beaded necklaces.[63] Hippie homes, vehicles and other possessions were often decorated with psychedelic art. The bold colors, hand-made clothing and loose fitting clothes opposed the tight and uniform clothing of the 1940s and 1950s. It also rejected consumerism in that the hand-production of clothing called for self-efficiency and individuality.[118]
    Love and sex [ edit ] Oz number 28, also known as the "
    Schoolkids issue of Oz", which was the main cause of a 1971 high-profile obscenity case in the United Kingdom.
    Oz was a UK underground publication with a general hippie / counter-cultural point of view.
    The common stereotype on the issues of love and sex had it that the hippies were "promiscuous, having wild sex orgies, seducing innocent teenagers and every manner of sexual perversion."[119] The hippie movement appeared concurrently in the midst of a rising sexual revolution, in which many views of the status quo on this subject were being challenged.
    The clinical study Human Sexual Response was published by Masters and Johnson in 1966, and the topic suddenly became more commonplace in America. The 1969 book Everything You Always Wanted to Know About Sex (But Were Afraid to Ask) by psychiatrist David Reuben was a more popular attempt at answering the public's curiosity regarding such matters. Then in 1972 appeared The Joy of Sex by Alex Comfort, reflecting an even more candid perception of love-making. By this time, the recreational or 'fun' aspects of sexual behavior were being discussed more openly than ever before, and this more 'enlightened' outlook resulted not just from the publication of such new books as these, but from a more pervasive sexual revolution that had already been well underway for some time.[119]
    The hippies inherited various countercultural views and practices regarding sex and love from the Beat Generation; "their writings influenced the hippies to open up when it came to sex, and to experiment without guilt or jealousy."[120] One popular hippie slogan that appeared was "If it feels good, do it!"[119] which for many meant "you are free to love whomever you please, whenever you please, however you please". This encouraged spontaneous sexual activity and experimentation. Group sex, public sex, homosexuality; under the influence of drugs, all the taboos went out the window. This doesn't mean that straight sex or monogamy were unknown, quite the contrary. Nevertheless, the open relationship became an accepted part of the hippie lifestyle. This meant that you might have a primary relationship with one person, but if another attracted you, you could explore that relationship without rancor or jealousy."[119]
    Hippies embraced the old slogan of free love of the radical social reformers of other eras; it was accordingly observed that "Free love made the whole love, marriage, sex, baby package obsolete. Love was no longer limited to one person, you could love anyone you chose. In fact love was something you shared with everyone, not just your sex partners. Love exists to be shared freely. We also discovered the more you share, the more you get! So why reserve your love for a select few? This profound truth was one of the great hippie revelations."[119] Sexual experimentation alongside psychedelics also occurred, due to the perception of their being uninhibitors.[121] Others explored the spiritual aspects of sex.[122]
    Travel [ edit ] Hand-crafted Hippie Truck, 1968
    Hippies tended to travel light, and could pick up and go wherever the action was at any time. Whether at a "love-in" on Mount Tamalpais near San Francisco, a demonstration against the Vietnam War in Berkeley, or one of Ken Kesey's "Acid Tests", if the "vibe" was not right and a change of scene was desired, hippies were mobile at a moment's notice. Planning was eschewed, as hippies were happy to put a few clothes in a backpack, stick out their thumbs and hitchhike anywhere. Hippies seldom worried whether they had money, hotel reservations or any of the other standard accoutrements of travel. Hippie households welcomed overnight guests on an impromptu basis, and the reciprocal nature of the lifestyle permitted greater freedom of movement. People generally cooperated to meet each other's needs in ways that became less common after the early 1970s.[123] This way of life is still seen among Rainbow Family groups, new age travellers and New Zealand's housetruckers.[124]
    A derivative of this free-flow style of travel were the hippie trucks and buses, hand-crafted mobile houses built on a truck or bus chassis to facilitate a nomadic lifestyle, as documented in the 1974 book Roll Your Own.[125] Some of these mobile houses were quite elaborate, with beds, toilets, showers and cooking facilities.
    On the West Coast, a unique lifestyle developed around the Renaissance Faires that Phyllis and Ron Patterson first organized in 1963. During the summer and fall months, entire families traveled together in their trucks and buses, parked at Renaissance Pleasure Faire sites in Southern and Northern California, worked their crafts during the week, and donned Elizabethan costume for weekend performances, and attended booths where handmade goods were sold to the public. The sheer number of young people living at the time made for unprecedented travel opportunities to special happenings. The peak experience of this type was the Woodstock Festival near Bethel, New York, from August 15 to 18, 1969, which drew between 400,000 and 500,000 people.[126][127]
    Hippie trail [ edit ] One travel experience, undertaken by hundreds of thousands of hippies between 1969 and 1971, was the Hippie trail overland route to India. Carrying little or no luggage, and with small amounts of cash, almost all followed the same route, hitch-hiking across Europe to Athens and on to Istanbul, then by train through central Turkey via Erzurum, continuing by bus into Iran, via Tabriz and Tehran to Mashhad, across the Afghan border into Herat, through southern Afghanistan via Kandahar to Kabul, over the Khyber Pass into Pakistan, via Rawalpindi and Lahore to the Indian frontier. Once in India, hippies went to many different destinations, but gathered in large numbers on the beaches of Goa and Kovalam in Trivandrum (Kerala),[128] or crossed the border into Nepal to spend months in Kathmandu. In Kathmandu, most of the hippies hung out in the tranquil surroundings of a place called Freak Street,[129] (Nepal Bhasa: Jhoo Chhen) which still exists near Kathmandu Durbar Square.
    Spirituality and religion [ edit ] Many hippies rejected mainstream organized religion in favor of a more personal spiritual experience. Buddhism and Hinduism often resonated with hippies, as they were seen as less rule-bound, and less likely to be associated with existing baggage.[130] Some hippies embraced neo-paganism, especially Wicca. Others were involved with the occult, with people like Timothy Leary citing Aleister Crowley as influences. By the 1960s, western interest in Hindu spirituality and yoga reached its peak, giving rise to a great number of Neo-Hindu schools specifically advocated to a western public.[131]
    In his 1991 book, "Hippies and American Values", Timothy Miller described the hippie ethos as essentially a "religious movement" whose goal was to transcend the limitations of mainstream religious institutions. "Like many dissenting religions, the hippies were enormously hostile to the religious institutions of the dominant culture, and they tried to find new and adequate ways to do the tasks the dominant religions failed to perform."[132] In his seminal, contemporaneous work, "The Hippie Trip", author Lewis Yablonsky notes that those who were most respected in hippie settings were the spiritual leaders, the so-called "high priests" who emerged during that era.[133]
    Timothy Leary, family and band on a lecture tour at State University of New York at Buffalo in 1969
    One such hippie "high priest" was San Francisco State University Professor Stephen Gaskin. Beginning in 1966, Gaskin's "Monday Night Class" eventually outgrew the lecture hall, and attracted 1,500 hippie followers in an open discussion of spiritual values, drawing from Christian, Buddhist, and Hindu teachings. In 1970 Gaskin founded a Tennessee community called The Farm, and even late in life he still listed his religion as "Hippie."[134][135][136]
    Timothy Leary was an American psychologist and writer, known for his advocacy of psychedelic drugs. On September 19, 1966, Leary founded the League for Spiritual Discovery, a religion declaring LSD as its holy sacrament, in part as an unsuccessful attempt to maintain legal status for the use of LSD and other psychedelics for the religion's adherents based on a "freedom of religion" argument. The Psychedelic Experience was the inspiration for John Lennon's song "Tomorrow Never Knows" in The Beatles' album Revolver.[137] Leary published a pamphlet in 1967 called Start Your Own Religion to encourage just that[138] and was invited to attend the January 14, 1967 Human Be-In a gathering of 20,000 to 30,000 hippies in San Francisco's Golden Gate Park In speaking to the group, he coined the famous phrase "Turn on, tune in, drop out".[139]
    The English magician Aleister Crowley became an influential icon to the new alternative spiritual movements of the decade as well as for rock musicians. The Beatles included him as one of the many figures on the cover sleeve of their 1967 album Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band while Jimmy Page, the guitarist of The Yardbirds and co-founder of 1970s rock band Led Zeppelin was fascinated by Crowley, and owned some of his clothing, manuscripts and ritual objects, and during the 1970s bought Boleskine House, which appears in the band's 1976 film The Song Remains the Same. On the back cover of the Doors 1970 compilation album 13, Jim Morrison and the other members of the Doors are shown posing with a bust of Aleister Crowley. Timothy Leary also openly acknowledged Crowley's inspiration.[140]
    After the hippie era, the Dudeist philosophy and lifestyle developed. Inspired by "The Dude", the neo-hippie protagonist of the Coen Brothers' 1998 film The Big Lebowski, Dudeism's stated primary objective is to promote a modern form of Chinese Taoism, outlined in Tao Te Ching by Laozi (6th century BC), blended with concepts by the Ancient Greek philosopher Epicurus (341-270 BC), and presented in a style as personified by the character of Jeffrey "The Dude" Lebowski, a fictional hippie character portrayed by Jeff Bridges in the film.[141] Dudeism has sometimes been regarded as a mock religion,[142][143] though its founder and many adherents regard it seriously.[144][145][146][147]
    Politics [ edit ] "The hippies were heirs to a long line of bohemians that includes William Blake, Walt Whitman, Ralph Waldo Emerson, Henry David Thoreau, Herman Hesse, Arthur Rimbaud, Oscar Wilde, Aldous Huxley, utopian movements like the Rosicrucians and the Theosophists, and most directly the Beatniks. Hippies emerged from a society that had produced birth-control pills, a counterproductive war in Vietnam, the liberation and idealism of the civil rights movement, feminism, homosexual rights, FM radio, mass-produced LSD, a strong economy, and a huge number of baby-boom teenagers. These elements allowed the hippies to have a mainstream impact that dwarfed that of the Beats and earlier avant-garde cultures."
    In Defense of Hippies by Danny Goldberg[130]
    For the historian of the anarchist movement Ronald Creagh, the hippie movement could be considered as the last spectacular resurgence of utopian socialism.[148] For Creagh, a characteristic of this is the desire for the transformation of society not through political revolution, or through reformist action pushed forward by the state, but through the creation of a counter-society of a socialist character in the midst of the current system, which will be made up of ideal communities of a more or less libertarian social form.[148]
    The peace symbol was developed in the UK as a logo for the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament, and was embraced by U.S. anti-war protesters during the 1960s. Hippies were often pacifists, and participated in nonviolent political demonstrations, such as Civil Rights Movement, the marches on Washington D.C., and anti-Vietnam War demonstrations, including draft-card burnings and the 1968 Democratic National Convention protests.[149] The degree of political involvement varied widely among hippies, from those who were active in peace demonstrations, to the more anti-authority street theater and demonstrations of the Yippies, the most politically active hippie sub-group.[150] Bobby Seale discussed the differences between Yippies and hippies with Jerry Rubin, who told him that Yippies were the political wing of the hippie movement, as hippies have not "necessarily become political yet". Regarding the political activity of hippies, Rubin said, "They mostly prefer to be stoned, but most of them want peace, and they want an end to this stuff."[151]
    In addition to nonviolent political demonstrations, hippie opposition to the Vietnam War included organizing political action groups to oppose the war, refusal to serve in the military and conducting "teach-ins" on college campuses that covered Vietnamese history and the larger political context of the war.[152]
    Scott McKenzie's 1967 rendition of John Phillips' song "San Francisco (Be Sure to Wear Flowers in Your Hair)", which helped to inspire the hippie Summer of Love, became a homecoming song for all Vietnam veterans arriving in San Francisco from 1967 onward. McKenzie has dedicated every American performance of "San Francisco" to Vietnam veterans, and he sang in 2002 at the 20th anniversary of the dedication of the Vietnam Veterans Memorial.[153] Hippie political expression often took the form of "dropping out" of society to implement the changes they sought.
    Politically motivated movements aided by hippies include the back to the land movement of the 1960s, cooperative business enterprises, alternative energy, the free press movement, and organic farming.[101][154]
    The San Francisco group known as the Diggers articulated an influential radical criticism of contemporary mass consumer society, and so they opened free stores which simply gave away their stock, provided free food, distributed free drugs, gave away money, organized free music concerts, and performed works of political art.[64] The Diggers took their name from the original English Diggers (1649''50) led by Gerrard Winstanley,[155] and they sought to create a mini-society free of money and capitalism.[156]
    Such activism was ideally carried through anti-authoritarian and non-violent means; thus it was observed that "The way of the hippie is antithetical to all repressive hierarchical power structures since they are adverse to the hippie goals of peace, love and freedom... Hippies don't impose their beliefs on others. Instead, hippies seek to change the world through reason and by living what they believe."[157]
    The political ideals of hippies influenced other movements, such as anarcho-punk, rave culture, green politics, stoner culture and the New Age movement. Arguments can be made that being "woke" is only the latest natural offshoot of hipness, since both seek heightened "awareness" of one's surroundings (social, political, sexual etc). For example, John Leland elaborates on the origins of coded language from African American slaves as a type of aware hipness and documents connections to downtrodden Jews and other minorities in American society in Hip: The History.[158]Penny Rimbaud of the English anarcho-punk band Crass said in interviews, and in an essay called The Last Of The Hippies, that Crass was formed in memory of his friend, Wally Hope.[159] Crass had its roots in Dial House, which was established in 1967 as a commune.[160] Some punks were often critical of Crass for their involvement in the hippie movement. Like Crass, Jello Biafra was influenced by the hippie movement, and cited the yippies as a key influence on his political activism and thinking, though he also wrote songs critical of hippies.[161][162]
    Drugs [ edit ] Following in the footsteps of the Beats, many hippies used cannabis (marijuana), considering it pleasurable and benign. They used drugs such as marijuana, LSD, magic mushrooms, and mescaline (peyote) to gain spiritual awakening.
    On the East Coast of the United States, Harvard University professors Timothy Leary,[163] Ralph Metzner and Richard Alpert (Ram Dass) advocated psychotropic drugs for psychotherapy, self-exploration, religious and spiritual use. Regarding LSD, Leary said, "Expand your consciousness and find ecstasy and revelation within."[164]
    On the West Coast of the United States, Ken Kesey was an important figure in promoting the recreational use of psychotropic drugs, especially LSD, also known as "acid." By holding what he called "Acid Tests", and touring the country with his band of Merry Pranksters, Kesey became a magnet for media attention that drew many young people to the fledgling movement. The Grateful Dead (originally billed as "The Warlocks") played some of their first shows at the Acid Tests, often as high on LSD as their audiences. Kesey and the Pranksters had a "vision of turning on the world."[164] Harder drugs, such as cocaine, amphetamines and heroin, were also sometimes used in hippie settings; however, these drugs were often disdained, even among those who used them, because they were recognized as harmful and addictive.[165]
    Legacy [ edit ] Culture [ edit ] Newcomers to the Internet are often startled to discover themselves not so much in some soulless colony of technocrats as in a kind of cultural Brigadoon - a flowering remnant of the '60s, when hippie communalism and libertarian politics formed the roots of the modern cyberrevolution...
    Stewart Brand, "We Owe It All To The Hippies" (1995).[166]
    "The '60s were a leap in human consciousness. Mahatma Gandhi, Malcolm X, Martin Luther King, Che Guevara, they led a revolution of conscience. The Beatles, The Doors, Jimi Hendrix created revolution and evolution themes. The music was like Dal­, with many colors and revolutionary ways. The youth of today must go there to find themselves."
    '-- Carlos Santana[167]
    The legacy of the hippie movement continues to permeate Western society.[168] In general, unmarried couples of all ages feel free to travel and live together without societal disapproval.[101][169] Frankness regarding sexual matters has become more common, and the rights of homosexual, bisexual and transgender people, as well as people who choose not to categorize themselves at all, have expanded.[170] Religious and cultural diversity has gained greater acceptance.[171]
    Co-operative business enterprises and creative community living arrangements are more accepted than before.[172] Some of the little hippie health food stores of the 1960s and 1970s are now large-scale, profitable businesses, due to greater interest in natural foods, herbal remedies, vitamins and other nutritional supplements.[173]It has been suggested that 1960s and 1970s counterculture embraced certain types of "groovy" science and technology. Examples include surfboard design, renewable energy, aquaculture and client-centered approaches to midwifery, childbirth, and women's health.[174][175]Authors Stewart Brand and John Markoff argue that the development and popularization of personal computers and the Internet find one of their primary roots in the anti-authoritarian ethos promoted by hippie culture.[166][176]
    Distinct appearance and clothing was one of the immediate legacies of hippies worldwide.[117][177] During the 1960s and 1970s, mustaches, beards and long hair became more commonplace and colorful, while multi-ethnic clothing dominated the fashion world. Since that time, a wide range of personal appearance options and clothing styles, including nudity, have become more widely acceptable, all of which was uncommon before the hippie era.[177][178] Hippies also inspired the decline in popularity of the necktie and other business clothing, which had been unavoidable for men during the 1950s and early 1960s. Additionally, hippie fashion itself has been commonplace in the years since the 1960s in clothing and accessories, particularly the peace symbol.[179] Astrology, including everything from serious study to whimsical amusement regarding personal traits, was integral to hippie culture.[180] The generation of the 1970s became influenced by the hippie and the 1960s countercultural legacy. As such in New York City musicians and audiences from the female, homosexual, Black, and Latino communities adopted several traits from the hippies and psychedelia. They included overpowering sound, free-form dancing, multi-colored, pulsating lighting, colorful costumes, and hallucinogens.[181][182][183] 1960s Psychedelic soul groups like The Chambers Brothers and especially Sly and The Family Stone influenced George Clinton, P-funk and the Temptations.[184] In addition, the perceived positivity, lack of irony, and earnestness of the hippies informed proto-disco music like M.F.S.B.'s album Love Is the Message.[181][185] Disco music supported 70s LGBT movement.
    The hippie legacy in literature includes the lasting popularity of books reflecting the hippie experience, such as The Electric Kool-Aid Acid Test.[186]
    Music [ edit ] In music, the folk rock and psychedelic rock popular among hippies evolved into genres such as acid rock, world beat and heavy metal music. Psychedelic trance (also known as psytrance) is a type of electronic music influenced by 1960s psychedelic rock. The tradition of hippie music festivals began in the United States in 1965 with Ken Kesey's Acid Tests, where the Grateful Dead played tripping on LSD and initiated psychedelic jamming. For the next several decades, many hippies and neo-hippies became part of the Deadhead community, attending music and art festivals held around the country. The Grateful Dead toured continuously, with few interruptions between 1965 and 1995. Phish and their fans (called Phish Heads) operated in the same manner, with the band touring continuously between 1983 and 2004. Many contemporary bands performing at hippie festivals and their derivatives are called jam bands, since they play songs that contain long instrumentals similar to the original hippie bands of the 1960s.[187]
    With the demise of Grateful Dead and Phish, nomadic touring hippies attend a growing series of summer festivals, the largest of which is called the Bonnaroo Music & Arts Festival, which premiered in 2002. The Oregon Country Fair is a three-day festival featuring handmade crafts, educational displays and costumed entertainment. The annual Starwood Festival, founded in 1981, is a seven-day event indicative of the spiritual quest of hippies through an exploration of non-mainstream religions and world-views, and has offered performances and classes by a variety of hippie and counter-culture icons.[188]
    The Burning Man festival began in 1986 at a San Francisco beach party and is now held in the Black Rock Desert northeast of Reno, Nevada. Although few participants would accept the hippie label, Burning Man is a contemporary expression of alternative community in the same spirit as early hippie events. The gathering becomes a temporary city (36,500 occupants in 2005, 50,000+ in 2011), with elaborate encampments, displays, and many art cars. Other events that enjoy a large attendance include the Rainbow Family Gatherings, The Gathering of the Vibes, Community Peace Festivals, and the Woodstock Festivals.
    United Kingdom [ edit ] In the UK, there are many new age travellers who are known as hippies to outsiders, but prefer to call themselves the Peace Convoy. They started the Stonehenge Free Festival in 1974, but English Heritage later banned the festival in 1985, resulting in the Battle of the Beanfield. With Stonehenge banned as a festival site, new age travellers gather at the annual Glastonbury Festival. Today[when? ], hippies in the UK can be found in parts of South West England, such as Bristol (particularly the neighborhoods of Montpelier, Stokes Croft, St Werburghs, Bishopston, Easton and Totterdown), Glastonbury in Somerset, Totnes in Devon, and Stroud in Gloucestershire, as well as in Hebden Bridge in West Yorkshire, and in areas of London and Cornwall. In the summer, many hippies and those of similar subcultures gather at numerous outdoor festivals in the countryside.
    In New Zealand, between 1976 and 1981, tens of thousands of hippies gathered from around the world on large farms around Waihi and Waikino for music and alternatives festivals. Named Nambassa, the festivals focused on peace, love, and a balanced lifestyle. The events featured practical workshops and displays advocating alternative lifestyles, self sufficiency, clean and sustainable energy and sustainable living.[189]
    In the UK and Europe, the years 1987 until 1989 were marked by a large-scale revival of many characteristics of the hippie movement. This later movement, composed mostly of people aged 18 to 25, adopted much of the original hippie philosophy of love, peace and freedom. In the summer of 1988 became known as the Second Summer of Love. Although the music favored by this movement was modern electronic music, especially house music and acid house, one could often hear songs from the original hippie era in the chill out rooms at raves. Also, there was a trend towards psychedelic indie rock in the form of Shoegaze, Dream Pop, Madchester and neo-Psychedelic bands like Jesus And Mary Chain, The Sundays, Spacemen 3, Loop, Stone Roses, Happy Mondays, Inspiral Carpets and Ride. This was effectively a parallel soundtrack to the rave scene that was rooted as much in 1960s psychedelic rock as it was in post-punk, though Madchester was more directly influenced by Acid House, funk and northern soul. Interestingly, many ravers were originally soul boys and football casuals, and football hooliganism declined after the Second Summer of Love.
    In the UK, many of the well-known figures of this movement first lived communally in Stroud Green, an area of north London located in Finsbury Park. In 1995, The Sekhmet Hypothesis attempted to link both hippie and rave culture together in relation to transactional analysis, suggesting that rave culture was a social archetype based on the mood of friendly strength, compared to the gentle hippie archetype, based on friendly weakness.[190] The later electronic dance genres known as goa trance and psychedelic trance and its related events and culture have important hippie legacies and neo hippie elements. The popular DJ of the genre Goa Gil, like other hippies from the 1960s, decided to leave the US and Western Europe to travel on the hippie trail and later developing psychedelic parties and music in the Indian island of Goa in which the goa and psytrance genres were born and exported around the world in the 1990s and 2000s.[191]
    Media [ edit ] Popular films depicting the hippie ethos and lifestyle include Woodstock, Easy Rider, Hair, The Doors, Across the Universe, Taking Woodstock, and Crumb.
    In 2002, photojournalist John Bassett McCleary published a 650-page, 6,000-entry unabridged slang dictionary devoted to the language of the hippies titled The Hippie Dictionary: A Cultural Encyclopedia of the 1960s and 1970s. The book was revised and expanded to 700 pages in 2004.[192][193] McCleary believes that the hippie counterculture added a significant number of words to the English language by borrowing from the lexicon of the Beat Generation, through the hippies' shortening of beatnik words and then popularizing their usage.[194]
    Hippies at the Nambassa 1981 Festival in New Zealand
    Goa Gil, original 1960s hippie who later became a pioneering electronic dance music DJ and party organizer, here appearing in the 2001 film Last Hippie Standing
    See also [ edit ] References [ edit ] ^ Hippie Cambridge Dictionary ^ "hippy - Definition of hippy in English by Oxford Dictionaries". Oxford Dictionaries - English. Archived from the original on December 31, 2017. ^ "hippie | History, Lifestyle, & Beliefs". Encyclopedia Britannica . Retrieved 2019-05-24 . ^ "Beat movement - History, Characteristics, Writers, & Facts". Encyclopedia Britannica . Retrieved 2 March 2019 . ^ Howard Smead (November 1, 2000). Don't Trust Anyone Over Thirty: The First Four Decades of the Baby Boom. iUniverse. pp. 155''. ISBN 978-0-595-12393-3. ^ Kilgallen, Dorothy (June 11, 1963). "Dorothy Kilgallen's Voice of Broadway". Syndicated column via The Montreal Gazette . Retrieved July 10, 2014 . New York hippies have a new kick '' baking marijuana in cookies... ^ To say "I'm hip to the situation" means "I'm aware of the situation. See: Sheidlower, Jesse (December 8, 2004), "Crying Wolof: Does the word hip really hail from a West African language?", Slate Magazine , retrieved May 7, 2007 ^ "Online Etymology Dictionary". Etymonline.com . Retrieved February 3, 2014 . ^ "Hep - Definition and More from the Free Merriam-Webster Dictionary". Merriam-webster.com. August 31, 2012 . Retrieved February 3, 2014 . ^ Davis, Fred; Munoz, Laura (June 1968). "Heads and Freaks: Patterns and Meanings of Drug Use Among Hippies". Journal of Health and Social Behavior. 9 (2): 156''64. doi:10.2307/2948334. JSTOR 2948334. PMID 5745772. S2CID 27921802. ^ Allen, James R.; West, Louis Jolyon (1968). "Flight from violence: Hippies and the green rebellion". American Journal of Psychiatry. 125 (3): 364''370. doi:10.1176/ajp.125.3.364. PMID 5667202. ^ Festival, Monterey International Pop. "Monterey International Pop Festival". Monterey International Pop Festival. Archived from the original on 22 June 2017 . Retrieved 2 March 2019 . ^ "The attendance at the third Pop Festival at...Isle of Wight, England on 30 Aug 1970 was claimed by its promoters, Fiery Creations, to be 400,000." The Guinness book of Records, 1987 (p. 91), Russell, Alan (ed.). Guinness World Records, 1986 ISBN 0851124399. ^ Purcell, Fernando; Alfredo Riquelme (2009). Ampliando miradas: Chile y su historia en un tiempo global. RIL Editores. p. 21. ISBN 978-956-284-701-8. ^ "(Un)Civil Societies: September 3, 2007". Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty. 11 November 2008. ^ "The Misconception About Baby Boomers and the Sixties". The New Yorker. 18 August 2019 . Retrieved 20 December 2021 . ^ Vitaljich, Shaun (December 8, 2004), Crying Wolof, Slate Magazine , retrieved 2007-05-07 ^ Jonathan Lighter, Random House Dictionary of Historical Slang ^ George Vere Hobart (January 16, 1867 '' January 31, 1926) ^ Harry "The Hipster" Gibson (1986), Everybody's Crazy But Me646456456654151, The Hipster Story, Progressive Records ^ Harry Gibson wrote: "At that time musicians used jive talk among themselves and many customers were picking up on it. One of these words was hep which described someone in the know. When lots of people started using hep, musicians changed to hip. I started calling people hipsters and greeted customers who dug the kind of jazz we were playing as 'all you hipsters.' Musicians at the club began calling me Harry the Hipster; so I wrote a new tune called 'Handsome Harry the Hipster.'" -- "Everybody's Crazy But Me" (1986). ^ Rexroth, Kenneth. (1961). "What's Wrong with the Clubs." Metronome. Reprinted in Assays ^ Booth, Martin (2004), Cannabis: A History, St. Martin's Press, p. 212. ^ Gilliland, John (1969). "Show 42 - The Acid Test: Defining 'hippy' " (audio) . Pop Chronicles. University of North Texas Libraries. Track 1. ^ Use of the term "hippie" did not become widespread in the mass media until early 1967, after San Francisco Chronicle columnist Herb Caen began to use the term; See "Take a Hippie to Lunch Today", S.F. Chronicle, January 20, 1967, p. 37. San Francisco Chronicle, January 18, 1967 column, p. 27 ^ a b "The Hippies", Time, July 7, 1968 , retrieved 2007-08-24 ^ Randal, Annie Janeiro (2005), "The Power to Influence Minds", Music, Power, and Politics, Routledge, pp. 66''67, ISBN 0-415-94364-7 ^ Kennedy, Gordon; Ryan, Kody (2003), Hippie Roots & The Perennial Subculture, archived from the original on August 30, 2007 , retrieved 2007-08-31 . See also: Kennedy 1998. ^ Elaine Woo, Gypsy Boots, 89; Colorful Promoter of Healthy Food and Lifestyles, Los Angeles Times, August 10, 2004, Accessed December 22, 2008. ^ Zablocki, Benjamin. "Hippies." World Book Online Reference Center. 2006. Retrieved on 2006-10-12. "Hippies were members of a youth movement...from white middle-class families and ranged in age from 15 to 25 years old." ^ a b Dudley 2000, pp. 193''194. ^ a b Hirsch 1993, p. 419. Hirsch describes hippies as: "Members of a cultural protest that began in the U.S. in the 1960s and affected Europe before fading in the 1970s...fundamentally a cultural rather than a political protest." ^ a b Pendergast & Pendergast 2005. Pendergast writes: "The Hippies made up the...nonpolitical subgroup of a larger group known as the counterculture...the counterculture included several distinct groups...One group, called the New Left...Another broad group called...the Civil Rights Movement...did not become a recognizable social group until after 1965...according to John C. McWilliams, author of The 1960s Cultural Revolution." ^ a b Stone 1999, Hippy Havens ^ August 28 - Bob Dylan turns The Beatles on to cannabis for the second time. See also: Brown, Peter; Gaines, Steven (2002), The Love You Make: An Insider's Story of the Beatles, NAL Trade, ISBN 0-451-20735-1 ;Moller, Karen (September 25, 2006), Tony Blair: Child Of The Hippie Generation, Swans , retrieved 2007-07-29 ^ Light My Fire: Rock Posters from the Summer of Love, Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, 2006, archived from the original on August 15, 2007 , retrieved 2007-08-25 ^ Booth 2004, p. 214. ^ Oldmeadow 2004, pp. 260, 264. ^ Stolley 1998, pp. 137. ^ Yippie Abbie Hoffman envisioned a different society: "...where people share things, and we don't need money; where you have the machines for the people. A free society, that's really what it amounts to... a free society built on life; but life is not some Time Magazine, hippie version of fagdom... we will attempt to build that society..." See: Swatez, Gerald. Miller, Kaye. (1970). Conventions: The Land Around Us Anagram Pictures. University of Illinois at Chicago Circle. Social Sciences Research Film Unit. qtd at ~16:48. The speaker is not explicitly identified, but it is thought to be Abbie Hoffman. Archived March 15, 2008, at the Wayback Machine ^ Wiener, Jon (1991), Come Together: John Lennon in His Time, University of Illinois Press, p. 40, ISBN 0-252-06131-4 : "Seven hundred million people heard it in a worldwide TV satellite broadcast. It became the anthem of flower power that summer...The song expressed the highest value of the counterculture...For the hippies, however, it represented a call for liberation from Protestant culture, with its repressive sexual taboos and its insistence on emotional restraint...The song presented the flower power critique of movement politics: there was nothing you could do that couldn't be done by others; thus you didn't need to do anything...John was arguing not only against bourgeois self-denial and future-mindedness but also against the activists' sense of urgency and their strong personal commitments to fighting injustice and oppression..." ^ Yablonsky 1968, pp. 106''107. ^ Theme appears in contemporaneous interviews throughout Yablonsky (1968). ^ McCleary 2004, pp. 50, 166, 323. ^ Dudley 2000, pp. 203''206. Timothy Miller notes that the counterculture was a "movement of seekers of meaning and value...the historic quest of any religion." Miller quotes Harvey Cox, William C. Shepard, Jefferson Poland, and Ralph J. Gleason in support of the view of the hippie movement as a new religion. See also Wes Nisker's The Big Bang, The Buddha, and the Baby Boom: "At its core, however, hippie was a spiritual phenomenon, a big, unfocused, revival meeting." Nisker cites the San Francisco Oracle, which described the Human Be-In as a "spiritual revolution". ^ a b Dodd, David (June 22, 1998), The Annotated Grateful Dead Lyrics: "That's It For The Other One", University of California, Santa Cruz, archived from the original on May 14, 2008 , retrieved 2008-05-09 ^ "Carl Franzoni, Last of the Freaks". Archived from the original on 21 June 2006. ^ Rogan, Johnny (August 31, 1997). The Byrds: Timeless Flight Revisited : the Sequel. Rogan House. p. 66. ISBN 9780952954019 '' via Google Books. ^ Walker, Michael (May 1, 2010). Laurel Canyon: The Inside Story of Rock-and-Roll's Legendary Neighborhood. Farrar, Straus and Giroux. p. 14. 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Cult Cinema by Ernest Mathlijs, Jamie Sexton. p. 78. ISBN 9781444396430. ^ "You are being redirected..." www.mediabistro.com. Archived from the original on 2011-08-10. ^ "Big Lebowski Spawns Religion". Dontpaniconline.com. Archived from the original on 2014-10-08 . Retrieved 2015-12-12 . ^ Mifflin, Ryan (February 16, 2012). "INTERVIEW: Oliver Benjamin, Founder of Dudeism & Author of "The Abide Guide: Living Like Lebowski" ". Otis Ryan Productions Blog. Archived from the original on 2012-10-20. ^ "The Dudely Lama Discusses Dudeism". We Love Cult. Archived from the original on November 10, 2013 . Retrieved September 19, 2012 . ^ "Cathleen Falsani Interview". Religion and Ethics Newsweekly. PBS. 2009-10-09 . Retrieved September 19, 2012 . ^ a b "Ronald Creagh. Laboratoires de l'utopie. Les communaut(C)s libertaires aux ‰tats-Unis. Paris. Payot. 1983. pg. 11". Wikiwix.com. Archived from the original on 2016-03-04 . Retrieved 2014-02-03 . ^ "1968 Democratic Convention". Chicago Tribune . Retrieved 2008-09-08 . ^ Shannon, Phil (June 18, 1997), Yippies, politics and the state, Cultural Dissent, Issue #, Green Left Weekly, archived from the original on January 26, 2009 , retrieved 2008-12-10 ^ Seale 1991, p. 350. ^ Junker, Detlef; Gassert, Philipp (2004), The United States and Germany in the Era of the Cold War, 1945-1990, Cambridge University Press, p. 424, ISBN 0-521-83420-1 ^ "Vietnam Veterans Memorial Fund Frequently Asked Questions". www.vvmf.org . Retrieved 27 January 2022 . ^ Turner 2006, pp. 32''39. ^ "Overview: who were (are) the Diggers?". The Digger Archives . Retrieved 2007-06-17 . ^ Gail Dolgin; Vicente Franco (2007). American Experience: The Summer of Love. PBS. Archived from the original on 2017-03-25 . Retrieved 2007-04-23 . ^ Stone 1999, "The Way of the Hippy" ^ Leland, John (2004). Hip:The History. New York.: Ecco. ISBN 978-0-06-052817-1. ^ Rimbaud, Penny (1982), The Last Of The Hippies - An Hysterical Romance, Crass ^ Shibboleth: My Revolting Life, Rimbaud, Penny, AK Press, 1999. ISBN 978-1873176405. ^ Vander Molen, Jodi. "Jello Biafra Interview". The Progressive . Retrieved February 1, 2002 . ^ Colurso, Mary (2007-06-29). "Jello Biafra can ruffle feathers". The Birmingham News. The Birmingham News . Retrieved June 29, 2007 . ^ "Timothy Leary". Biography. 20 May 2021 . Retrieved 27 January 2022 . ^ a b Stolley 1998, pp. 139. ^ Yablonsky 1968, pp. 243, 257 ^ a b Brand, Stewart (Spring 1995), "We Owe It All to the Hippies", Time, vol. 145, no. 12 , retrieved 2007-11-25 ^ Carlos Santana: I'm Immortal interview by Punto Digital, October 13, 2010 ^ Prichard, Evie (June 28, 2007). "We're all hippies now". The Times. London . Retrieved 2010-05-04 . ^ Mary Ann Sieghart (May 25, 2007). "Hey man, we're all kind of hippies now. Far out". The Times. London . Retrieved 2007-05-25 . [dead link ] ^ Kitchell, Mark (Director and Writer) (January 1990). Berkeley in the Sixties (Documentary). Liberation . Retrieved 2009-05-10 . ^ Barnia, George (1996), The Index of Leading Spiritual Indicators, Dallas TX: Word Publishing, archived from the original on 2011-01-04 , retrieved 2009-05-11 ^ Hip Inc. "Hippies From A to Z by Skip Stone". Hipplanet.com . Retrieved 2012-11-21 . ^ Baer, Hans A. (2004), Toward An Integrative Medicine: Merging Alternative Therapies With Biomedicine, Rowman Altamira, pp. 2''3, ISBN 0-7591-0302-X ^ Eardley-Pryor, Roger (2017). "Love, Peace, and Technoscience". Distillations. Vol. 3, no. 2. pp. 38''41. ^ Kaiser, David; McCray, W. Patrick (2016). Groovy Science: Knowledge, Innovation, and American Counterculture. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-37291-4. ^ Markoff, John (2005), What the Dormouse Said: How the 60s Counterculture Shaped the Personal Computer Industry , Penguin, ISBN 0-670-03382-0 ^ a b Connikie, Yvonne. (1990). Fashions of a Decade: The 1960s. Facts on File. ISBN 0-8160-2469-3 ^ Pendergast, Sara. (2004) Fashion, Costume, and Culture. Volume 5. Modern World Part II: 1946''2003. Thomson Gale. ISBN 0-7876-5417-5 ^ Sewing, Joy; Houston Chronicle; January 24, 2008; "Peace sign makes a statement in the fashion world". Retrieved June 10, 2012. ^ The musical Hair and a multitude of well known contemporary song lyrics such as The Age of Aquarius ^ a b Disco Double Take: New York Parties Like It's 1975. Village Voice.com. Retrieved on August 9, 2009. ^ (1998) "The Cambridge History of American Music", ISBN 978-0-521-45429-2, ISBN 978-0-521-45429-2, p.372: "Initially, disco musicians and audiences alike belonged to marginalized communities: women, gay, black, and Latinos" ^ (2002) "Traces of the Spirit: The Religious Dimensions of Popular Music", ISBN 978-0-8147-9809-6, ISBN 978-0-8147-9809-6, p.117: "New York City was the primary center of disco, and the original audience was primarily gay African Americans and Latinos." ^ Psychedelic soul AllMusic Retirved 17 January 2022 ^ "But the pre-Saturday Night Fever dance underground was actually sweetly earnest and irony-free in its hippie-dippie positivity, as evinced by anthems like M.F.S.B.'s 'Love Is the Message'." '--Village Voice, July 10, 2001. ^ Bryan, C. d. b. (August 18, 1968), " 'The Pump House Gang' and 'The Electric Kool-Aid Acid Test' ", The New York Times , retrieved 2007-08-21 ^ JamBands.com - What is a Jam Band? Retrieved from Internet Archive December 23, 2013. ^ Clifton, Chas (2006). Her Hidden Children: The Rise of Wicca and Paganism in America. Rowman Altamira. p. 163. ISBN 9780759102026. ^ Nambassa: A New Direction, edited by Colin Broadley and Judith Jones, A. H. & A. W. Reed, 1979. ISBN 0-589-01216-9 ^ The Sekhmet Hypothesis, Iain Spence, 1995, Bast's Blend. ISBN 0952536501 ^ Time Out: Mumbai and Goa. London: Time Out Guides. 2011. p. 184. In 1969, Gilbert Levy left the Haigh Ashbury district of San Francisco and took the overland trail through Afghanistan and Pakistan, first to Bombay and then to Goa...Throughout the 1970s, Gil organized legendary parties at Anjuna- moonlight jams of non-stop music, dancing and chemical experimentation that lasted from Christmas Eve to New Year´s Day for a tribe of fellow overland travellers who called themselves the Goa Freaks...In the 90s, Gil started to use snippets from industrial music, etno techno, acid house and psychedelic rock to help create Goa Trance, dance music with a heavy spiritual accent...For Goa Gil, Goa Trance is a logical continuation of what hippies were doing back in the 60s and 70s. "The Psychedelic Revolution never really stopped" he said, "it just had to go halfway round the world to the end of a dirt road on a deserted beach, and there it was allowed to evolve and mutate, without government or media pressures. ^ McCleary, John Bassett. The Hippie Dictionary: A Cultural Encyclopedia of the 1960s and 1970s, Ten Speed Press, 2004. ISBN 1580085474 ^ Gates, David (July 12, 2004), "Me Talk Hippie", Newsweek , retrieved 2008-01-27 ^ Merritt, Byron (August 2004), A Groovy Interview with Author John McCleary, Fiction Writers of the Monterey Peninsula, archived from the original on October 12, 2007 , retrieved 2008-01-27 Works cited [ edit ] Booth, Martin (2004), Cannabis: A History , St. Martin's Press, ISBN 0-312-32220-8 .Bugliosi, Vincent; Gentry, Curt (1994), Helter Skelter, V. W. Norton & Company, Inc., ISBN 0-393-32223-8 .Dudley, William, ed. (2000), The 1960s (America's decades), San Diego: Greenhaven Press. .Heath, Joseph; Potter, Andrew (2004), Nation of Rebels: Why Counterculture Became Consumer Culture, Collins, ISBN 0-06-074586-X .Grunenberg, Christoph; Harris, Jonathan (2005), Summer of Love: Psychedelic Art, Social Crisis and Counterculture in the 1960s, Liverpool University Press, ISBN 0-85323-929-0 .Hirsch, E.D. (1993), The Dictionary of Cultural Literacy, Houghton Mifflin, ISBN 0-395-65597-8 .Katz, Jack (1988), Seductions of Crime: Moral and Sensual Attractions in Doing Evil, Basic Books, ISBN 0-465-07616-5 .Kennedy, Gordon (1998), Children of the Sun: A Pictorial Anthology From Germany To California, 1883''1949, Nivaria Press, ISBN 0-9668898-0-0 .Lattin, Don (2004), Following Our Bliss: How the Spiritual Ideals of the Sixties Shape Our Lives Today, HarperCollins, ISBN 0-06-073063-3 .Lee, Martin A.; Shlain, Bruce (1992), Acid Dreams: The Complete Social History of LSD: The CIA, the Sixties, and Beyond, Grove Press, ISBN 0-8021-3062-3 .Lewis, James R.; Melton, J. Gordon (1992). "Introduction". In Lewis, James R.; Melton, J. Gordon (eds.). Perspectives on the New Age. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press. pp. ix''xxi. ISBN 978-0-7914-1213-8. Lytle, Mark H. (2006), America's Uncivil Wars: The Sixties Era from Elvis to the Fall of Richard Nixon, Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-517496-8 .McCleary, John (2004), The Hippie Dictionary, Ten Speed Press, ISBN 1-58008-547-4 .Marty, Myron A. (1997), Daily life in the United States, 1960''1990, Westport, CT: The Greenwood Press, ISBN 0-313-29554-9 .Oldmeadow, Harry (2004), Journeys East: 20th Century Western Encounters with Eastern Religious Traditions, World Wisdom, Inc, ISBN 0-941532-57-7 .Pendergast, Tom; Pendergast, Sara, eds. (2005), "Sixties Counterculture: The Hippies and Beyond", The Sixties in America Reference Library, vol. 1: Almanac, Detroit: Thomson Gale, pp. 151''171 .Perry, Charles (2005), The Haight-Ashbury: A History (Reprint ed.), Wenner Books, ISBN 1-932958-55-X .Seale, Bobby (1991), Seize the Time: The Story of the Black Panther Party and Huey P. Newton, Black Classic Press, ISBN 0-933121-30-X .Stevens, Jay (1998), Storming Heaven: LSD and the American Dream, Grove Press, ISBN 0-8021-3587-0 .Stolley, Richard B. (1998), Turbulent Years: The 60s (Our American Century), Time-Life Books, ISBN 0-7835-5503-2 .Stone, Skip (1999), Hippies From A to Z, Hip Inc. , retrieved 2017-08-13 .Tamony, Peter (Summer 1981), "Tripping out from San Francisco", American Speech, Duke University Press, 56 (2): 98''103, doi:10.2307/455009, JSTOR 455009, PMID 11623430 .Tompkins, Vincent, ed. (2001a), "Assimilation of the Counterculture", American Decades, vol. 8: 1970''1979, Detroit: Thomson Gale .Tompkins, Vincent, ed. (2001b), "Hippies", American Decades, vol. 7: 1960''1969, Detroit: Thomson Gale .Turner, Fred (2006), From Counterculture to Cyberculture: Stewart Brand, the Whole Earth Network, and the Rise of Digital Utopianism, University Of Chicago Press, ISBN 0-226-81741-5 .Yablonsky, Lewis (1968), The Hippie Trip, Pegasus, ISBN 0-595-00116-5 .Further reading [ edit ] Binkley, Sam (2002), "Hippies", St. James Encyclopedia of Pop Culture, archived from the original on 2007-04-22 '' via FindArticles.com .Brand, Stewart (1995), "We Owe it All to the Hippies", Time , archived from the original on 2011-01-06 , retrieved 2006-09-24 .Buckley, William F. Jr.; Yablonsky, Lewis; Sanders, Ed; Kerouac, Jack (September 3, 1968). "113 The Hippies". Firing Line. Hoover Institution on War, Revolution, and Peace, Video Library. Archived from the original on 2021-10-30 . Retrieved 23 October 2021 '' via YouTube. .Gaskin, Stephen (1970), Monday Night Class, The Book Farm, ISBN 1-57067-181-8 .Kent, Stephen A. (2001), From slogans to mantras: social protest and religious conversion in the late Vietnam war era, Syracuse University Press, ISBN 0-8156-2923-0 .Mankin, Bill (2012), We Can All Join In: How Rock Festivals Helped Change America, Like the Dew, archived from the original on 2013-12-19 , retrieved 2012-03-16 .Lemke-Santangelo, Gretchen (2009), Daughters of Aquarius: Women of the Sixties Counterculture, University Press of Kansas, ISBN 978-0700616336 .MacLean, Rory (2008), Magic Bus: On the Hippie Trail from Istanbul to India, New York: Ig Publishing, ISBN 978-0-14-101595-8, archived from the original on 2009-05-08 , retrieved 2021-03-30 .Markoff, John (2006), What the Dormouse Said: How the Sixties Counterculture Shaped the Personal Computer Industry, Penguin Books, ISBN 0-14-303676-9 .Mecchi, Irene (1991), The Best of Herb Caen, 1960''75, Chronicle Books, ISBN 0-8118-0020-2 .Stone, Skip (1999), Hippies From A to Z: Their Sex, Drugs, Music and Impact on Society From the Sixties to the Present, Hip Inc., ISBN 1-930258-01-1 .Young, Shawn David (2005), Hippies, Jesus Freaks, and Music, Ann Arbor: Xanedu/Copley Original Works, ISBN 1-59399-201-7 .Altman, Robert (Curator) (1997), "The Summer of Love '' Gallery", Summer of Love 30th Anniversary Celebration, The Council for the Summer of Love, archived from the original on 2008-01-25 , retrieved 2008-01-21 .Bissonnette, Anne (Curator) (April 12 '' September 17, 2000), Revolutionizing Fashion: The Politics of Style, Kent State University Museum, archived from the original on January 18, 2008 , retrieved 2008-01-21 .Brode, Douglas (2004), From Walt to Woodstock: How Disney Created the Counterculture, University of Texas Press, ISBN 0-292-70273-6 .Canadian Broadcasting Corporation (2006), Hippie Society: The Youth Rebellion, Life and Society, CBC Digital Archives , retrieved 2008-01-21 .Charters, Ann (2003), The Portable Sixties reader , New York: Penguin Books, ISBN 0-14-200194-5 .Curl, John (2007), Memories of DROP CITY: The First Hippie Commune of the 1960s and the Summer of Love, A Memoir, New York: iuniverse, ISBN 978-0595423439, archived from the original on April 13, 2009 .Howard, John Robert (March 1969), "The Flowering of the Hippie Movement", Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 382 (Protest in the Sixties): 43''55, doi:10.1177/000271626938200106, S2CID 146605321 .Laughead, George (1998), WWW-VL: History: 1960s, European University Institute , retrieved 2008-01-21 .Lemke-Santangelo, Gretchen (2009), Daughters of Aquarius: Women of the Sixties Counterculture, University Press of Kansas, ISBN 978-0700616336 .Lund, Jens; Denisoff, R. Serge (Oct''Dec 1971), "The Folk Music Revival and the Counter Culture: Contributions and Contradictions", The Journal of American Folklore, American Folklore Society, 84 (334): 394''405, doi:10.2307/539633, JSTOR 539633 .MacFarlane, Scott (2007), The Hippie Narrative: A Literary Perspective on the Counterculture, McFarland & Company, Inc., ISBN 978-0-7864-2915-8 .Neville, Richard (1995), Hippie, Hippie, Shake: The Dreams, the Trips, the Trials, the Love-ins, the Screw ups'--the Sixties., William Heinemann Australia, ISBN 0-85561-523-0 .Neville, Richard (1996), Out of My Mind: From Flower Power to the Third Millennium'--the Seventies, the Eighties and the Nineties, Penguin, ISBN 0-14-026270-9 .Partridge, William L. (1973), The Hippie Ghetto: The Natural History of a Subculture, New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, ISBN 0-03-091081-1 .Pirsig, Robert M. (2006) [1991], Lila: An Inquiry into Morals, Bantam Books, ISBN 0-553-07873-9 .Rainbow Family (2004), Rainbow Family of the Living Light, Circle of Light Community Network, archived from the original on 2008-07-19 , retrieved 2008-01-21 . See also:Riser, George (Curator) (1998), The Psychedelic '60s: Literary Tradition and Social Change, Special Collections Department. University of Virginia Library, archived from the original on January 11, 2008 , retrieved 2008-01-21 .Staller, Karen M. (2006), Runaways: How the Sixties Counterculture Shaped Today's Practices and Policies, Columbia University Press, ISBN 0-231-12410-4 .Stone, Skip (2000), The Way of the Hippy, Hip Inc., archived from the original on 2009-07-05 .Thompson, Hunter S. (2000), "Owl Farm '' Winter of '68", Fear and Loathing in America: The Brutal Odyssey of an Outlaw Journalist 1968''1976, Simon & Schuster, ISBN 0-684-87315-X Walpole, Andy (2004), "Hippies, Freaks and the Summer of Love", Harold Hill: A People's History, haroldhill.org, archived from the original on 2007-07-12 , retrieved 2008-01-21 .Wolfe, Tom (1968), The Electric Kool-Aid Acid Test, New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux .External links [ edit ] Wikimedia Commons has media related to
    Hippies
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    hippie in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
    Summer of Love Archived 2017-02-28 at the Wayback Machine. A film part of PBS´s American Experience series. Includes the film available to watch online Archived 2016-03-05 at the Wayback Machine and other information on the San Francisco event known as the Summer of Love as well as other material related to the hippie subculture.Hippie Society: The Youth Rebellion. A Canadian program by the CBC public network on the hippie rebellion including videos to watch.70's Origin Archived 2021-02-14 at the Wayback Machine. Seventies Origin History.Sixtiespix. An archive with photographs of hippie culture.Hippie Movies & TV Shows. 1960s and early 1970s hippie and youth culture on film and TV.Hippie Quotes Archived 2020-10-24 at the Wayback Machine. Hippie Quotes from all times.UKHippy . UK Based Hippy & New Age Traveller website; online since 2005 with historical links to the original UK hippy community.
  Fabian Society - Wikipedia
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    British socialist organisation founded in 1884
    The Fabian SocietyFabian Society logo
    AbbreviationFSFormation4 January 1884 ; 139 years ago ( 1884-01-04 ) Legal statusUnincorporated membership associationPurpose"To promote greater equality of power, wealth and opportunity; the value of collective action and public service; an accountable, tolerant and active democracy; citizenship, liberty and human rights; sustainable development; and multilateral international cooperation"HeadquartersLondon, EnglandLocationMembership
    8,000Official language
    EnglishGeneral Secretary
    Andrew HarropChair
    Martin EdoborVice-Chairs
    Wes Streeting, Catriona MunroHon. Treasurer
    Baron Kennedy of SouthwarkMain organ
    Executive CommitteeSubsidiariesYoung Fabians, Fabian Women's Network, Scottish Fabians, around 60 local Fabian SocietiesAffiliationsLabour Party, Foundation for European Progressive StudiesWebsite fabians.org.uk The Fabian Society is a British socialist organisation whose purpose is to advance the principles of social democracy and democratic socialism via gradualist and reformist effort in democracies, rather than by revolutionary overthrow.[1][2] The Fabian Society was also historically related to radicalism, a left-wing liberal tradition.[3][4][5]
    As one of the founding organisations of the Labour Representation Committee in 1900, and as an important influence upon the Labour Party which grew from it, the Fabian Society has had a powerful influence on British politics. Members of the Fabian Society have included political leaders from other countries, such as Jawaharlal Nehru, who adopted Fabian principles as part of their own political ideologies. The Fabian Society founded the London School of Economics in 1895.
    Today, the society functions primarily as a think tank and is one of twenty socialist societies affiliated with the Labour Party. Similar societies exist in Australia, in Canada, in New Zealand, and in Sicily.
    Organisational history [ edit ] Establishment [ edit ] Blue plaque at 17 Osnaburgh St, where the Society was founded in 1884
    Wolf in Sheep's Clothing, the original coat of arms
    The Fabian Society was founded on 4 January 1884 in London as an offshoot of a society founded a year earlier, called The Fellowship of the New Life, which had been a forebear of the British Ethical and humanist movements.[6] Early Fellowship members included the visionary Victorian elite, among them poets Edward Carpenter and John Davidson, sexologist Havelock Ellis, and early socialist Edward R. Pease. They wanted to transform society by setting an example of clean simplified living for others to follow. Some members also wanted to become politically involved to aid society's transformation; they set up a separate society, the Fabian Society. All members were free to attend both societies. The Fabian Society additionally advocated renewal of Western European Renaissance ideas and their promulgation throughout the world.
    The Fellowship of the New Life was dissolved in 1899,[7] but the Fabian Society grew to become a leading academic society in the United Kingdom in the Edwardian era. It was typified by the members of its vanguard Coefficients club. Public meetings of the Society were for many years held at Essex Hall, a popular location just off the Strand in central London.[8]
    The Fabian Society was named'--at the suggestion of Frank Podmore'--in honour of the Roman general Quintus Fabius Maximus Verrucosus (nicknamed Cunctator, meaning the "Delayer").[9] His Fabian strategy sought gradual victory against the superior Carthaginian army under the renowned general Hannibal through persistence, harassment, and wearing the enemy down by attrition rather than pitched, climactic battles.[citation needed ]
    An explanatory note appearing on the title page of the group's first pamphlet declared:
    For the right moment you must wait, as Fabius did most patiently when warring against Hannibal, though many censured his delays; but when the time comes you must strike hard, as Fabius did, or your waiting will be in vain, and fruitless.[10]
    According to author Jon Perdue, "The logo of the Fabian Society, a tortoise, represented the group's predilection for a slow, imperceptible transition to socialism, while its coat of arms, a 'wolf in sheep's clothing', represented its preferred methodology for achieving its goal."[3] The wolf in sheep's clothing symbolism was later abandoned, due to its obvious negative connotations.[citation needed ]
    Its nine founding members were Frank Podmore, Edward R. Pease, William Clarke, Hubert Bland,[11] Percival Chubb, Frederick Keddell,[12] H. H. Champion,[13] Edith Nesbit,[4] and Rosamund Dale Owen.[12][11] Havelock Ellis is sometimes also mentioned as a tenth founding member, though there is some question about this.[12]
    Organisational growth [ edit ] Immediately upon its inception, the Fabian Society began attracting many prominent contemporary figures drawn to its socialist cause, including George Bernard Shaw, H. G. Wells, Annie Besant, Graham Wallas, Charles Marson, Sydney Olivier, Oliver Lodge, Ramsay MacDonald and Emmeline Pankhurst. Bertrand Russell briefly became a member, but resigned after he expressed his belief that the Society's principle of entente (in this case, between countries allying themselves against Germany) could lead to war.
    At the core of the Fabian Society were Sidney and Beatrice Webb. Together, they wrote numerous studies[14] of industrial Britain, including alternative co-operative economics that applied to ownership of capital as well as land.[citation needed ]
    Many Fabians participated in the formation of the Labour Representation Committee in 1900 and the group's constitution, written by Sidney Webb, borrowed heavily from the founding documents of the Fabian Society. At the meeting that founded the Labour Representation Committee in 1900, the Fabian Society claimed 861 members and sent one delegate.[citation needed ]
    The years 1903 to 1908 saw a growth in popular interest in the socialist idea in Great Britain, and the Fabian Society grew accordingly, tripling its membership to nearly 2500 by the end of the period, half of whom were located in London.[15] In 1912, a student section was organised called the University Socialist Federation (USF) and by the outbreak of World War I in 1914 this contingent counted its own membership of more than 500.[15]
    Early Fabian views [ edit ] The first Fabian Society pamphlets[16] advocating tenets of social justice coincided with the zeitgeist of Liberal reforms during the early 1900s, including eugenics.[17] The Fabian proposals however were considerably more progressive than those that were enacted in the Liberal reform legislation. The Fabians lobbied for the introduction of a minimum wage in 1906, for the creation of a universal health care system in 1911 and for the abolition of hereditary peerages in 1917.[18] Agnes Harben and Henry Devenish Harben were among Fabians advocating women's emancipation and supporting suffrage movements in Britain, and internationally.[19]
    Fabian socialists were in favour of reforming the foreign policy of the British Empire as a conduit for internationalist reform, and were in favour of a capitalist welfare state modelled on the Bismarckian German model; they criticised Gladstonian liberalism both for its individualism at home and its internationalism abroad. They favoured a national minimum wage in order to stop British industries compensating for their inefficiency by lowering wages instead of investing in capital equipment; slum clearances and a health service in order for "the breeding of even a moderately Imperial race" which would be more productive and better militarily than the "stunted, anaemic, demoralised denizens ... of our great cities"; and a national education system because "it is in the classrooms ... that the future battles of the Empire for commercial prosperity are already being lost".[20]
    In 1900 the Society produced Fabianism and the Empire, the first statement of its views on foreign affairs, drafted by Bernard Shaw and incorporating the suggestions of 150 Fabian members. It was directed against the liberal individualism of those such as John Morley and Sir William Harcourt.[21] It claimed that the classical liberal political economy was outdated and that imperialism was the new stage of the international polity. The question was whether Britain would be the centre of a world empire or whether it would lose its colonies and end up as just two islands in the North Atlantic. It expressed support for Britain in the Boer War because small nations, such as the Boers, were anachronisms in the age of empires.[21]
    In order to hold onto the Empire, the British needed to fully exploit the trade opportunities secured by war; maintain the British armed forces in a high state of readiness to defend the Empire; the creation of a citizen army to replace the professional army; the Factory Acts would be amended to extend to 21 the age for half-time employment, so that the thirty hours gained would be used in "a combination of physical exercises, technical education, education in civil citizenship ... and field training in the use of modern weapons".[22]
    The Fabians also favoured the nationalisation of land rent, believing that rents collected by landowners in respect of their land's value were unearned, an idea which drew heavily from the work of American economist Henry George.[citation needed ]
    Second generation [ edit ] In the period between the two World Wars, the "Second Generation" Fabians, including the writers R. H. Tawney, G. D. H. Cole and Harold Laski, continued to be a major influence on socialist thought.
    But the general idea is that each man should have power according to his knowledge and capacity. [...] And the keynote is that of my fairy State: From every man according to his capacity; to every man according to his needs. A democratic Socialism, controlled by majority votes, guided by numbers, can never succeed; a truly aristocratic Socialism, controlled by duty, guided by wisdom, is the next step upwards in civilisation.[23]
    '--'‰Annie Besant, a Fabian Society member and later president of Indian National Congress
    It was at this time that many of the future leaders of the Third World were exposed to Fabian thought, most notably India's Jawaharlal Nehru, who subsequently framed economic policy for India on Fabian socialism lines. After independence from Britain, Nehru's Fabian ideas committed India to an economy in which the state owned, operated and controlled means of production, in particular key heavy industrial sectors such as steel, telecommunications, transportation, electricity generation, mining and real estate development. Private activity, property rights and entrepreneurship were discouraged or regulated through permits, nationalisation of economic activity and high taxes were encouraged, rationing, control of individual choices and Mahalanobis model considered by Nehru as a means to implement the Fabian Society version of socialism.[24][25][26] In addition to Nehru, several pre-independence leaders in colonial India such as Annie Besant'--Nehru's mentor and later a president of Indian National Congress '' were members of the Fabian Society.[5]
    Obafemi Awolowo, who later became the premier of Nigeria's now-defunct Western Region, was also a Fabian member in the late 1940s. It was the Fabian ideology that Awolowo used to run the Western Region during his premiership with great success, although he was prevented from using it in a similar fashion on the national level in Nigeria. It is less known that the founder of Pakistan, Muhammad Ali Jinnah[citation needed ], was an avid member of the Fabian Society in the early 1930s. Lee Kuan Yew, the first Prime Minister of Singapore, stated in his memoirs that his initial political philosophy was strongly influenced by the Fabian Society. However, he later altered his views, considering the Fabian ideal of socialism as impractical.[27] In 1993, Lee said:
    They [Fabian Socialists] were going to create a just society for the British workers'--the beginning of a welfare state, cheap council housing, free medicine and dental treatment, free spectacles, generous unemployment benefits. Of course, for students from the colonies, like Singapore and Malaya, it was a great attraction as the alternative to communism. We did not see until the 1970s that that was the beginning of big problems contributing to the inevitable decline of the British economy.[27]
    In the Middle East, the theories of Fabian Society intellectual movement of early 20th-century Britain inspired the Ba'athist vision. The Middle East adaptation of Fabian socialism led the state to control big industry, transport, banks, internal and external trade. The state would direct the course of economic development, with the ultimate aim to provide a guaranteed minimum standard of living for all.[28] Michel Aflaq, widely considered as the founder of the Ba'athist movement, was a Fabian socialist. Aflaq's ideas, with those of Salah al-Din al-Bitar and Zaki al-Arsuzi, came to fruition in the Arab world in the form of dictatorial regimes in Iraq and Syria.[29] SalÄmah MÅsÄ of Egypt, another prominent champion of Arab Socialism, was a keen adherent of Fabian Society, and a member since 1909.[30]
    In October 1940, the Fabian Society established the Fabian Colonial Bureau to facilitate research and debate British colonial policy.[31] The Fabian Colonial Bureau strongly influenced the colonial policies of the Attlee government (1945''51).[32] Rita Hinden founded the colonial bureau and was its secretary.[32]
    Fabian academics of the late 20th century included the political scientist Sir Bernard Crick, the economists Thomas Balogh and Nicholas Kaldor, and the sociologist Peter Townsend.
    20th century [ edit ] During the 20th century the group was always influential in Labour Party circles, with members including Ramsay MacDonald, Clement Attlee, Anthony Crosland, Roy Jenkins, Hugh Dalton, Richard Crossman, Ian Mikardo, Tony Benn, Harold Wilson and more recently Shirley Williams, Tony Blair, Gordon Brown, Gordon Marsden and Ed Balls. 229 members of the Society were elected to Parliament at the 1945 general election.[33] Ben Pimlott served as its chairman in the 1990s. (A Pimlott Prize for Political Writing was organised in his memory by the Fabian Society and The Guardian in 2005, and continues annually.) The Society is affiliated to the Party as a socialist society. In recent years the Young Fabian group, founded in 1960, has become an important networking and discussion organisation for younger (under 31) Labour Party activists and played a role in the 1994 election of Tony Blair as Labour Leader. Today there is also an active Fabian Women's Network and Scottish and Welsh Fabian groups.
    Influence on Labour government [ edit ] After the election of a Labour Party government in 1997, the Fabian Society was a forum for New Labour ideas and for critical approaches from across the party.[34] The most significant Fabian contribution to Labour's policy agenda in government was Ed Balls's 1992 discussion paper, advocating Bank of England independence. Balls had been a Financial Times journalist when he wrote this Fabian pamphlet, before going to work for Gordon Brown. Former BBC Business Editor Robert Peston, in his book Brown's Britain, calls this an "essential tract" and concludes that Balls "deserves as much credit '' probably more '' than anyone else for the creation of the modern Bank of England";[35] William Keegan offered a similar analysis of Balls's Fabian pamphlet in his book on Labour's economic policy,[36] which traces in detail the path leading up to this dramatic policy change after Labour's first week in office.
    Contemporary Fabianism [ edit ] On 21 April 2009, the Society's website stated that it had 6,286 members: "Fabian national membership now stands at a 35 year high: it is over 20% higher than when the Labour Party came to office in May 1997. It is now double what it was when Clement Attlee left office in 1951."[citation needed ]
    The latest edition of the Dictionary of National Biography (a reference work listing details of famous or significant Britons throughout history) includes 174 Fabians. Four Fabians, Beatrice and Sidney Webb, Graham Wallas, and George Bernard Shaw, founded the London School of Economics with the money left to the Fabian Society by Henry Hutchinson. Supposedly the decision was made at a breakfast party on 4 August 1894. The founders are depicted in the Fabian Window[37] designed by George Bernard Shaw. The window was stolen in 1978 and reappeared at Sotheby's in 2005. It was restored to display in the Shaw Library at the London School of Economics in 2006 at a ceremony over which Tony Blair presided.[38]
    As of 2016, the Fabian Society had about 7,000 members.[39] In June 2019 it had 7,136 individual members.[40]
    The Fabian Society Tax Commission of 2000 was widely credited[41] with influencing the Labour government's policy and political strategy for its one significant public tax increase: the National Insurance rise to raise £8 billion for National Health Service spending. (The Fabian Commission had in fact called for a directly hypothecated "NHS tax"[42] to cover the full cost of NHS spending, arguing that linking taxation more directly to spending was essential to make tax rise publicly acceptable. The 2001 National Insurance rise was not formally hypothecated, but the government committed itself to using the additional funds for health spending.) Several other recommendations, including a new top rate of income tax, were to the left of government policy and not accepted, though this comprehensive review of UK taxation was influential in economic policy and political circles, and a new top rate of income tax of 50% was introduced in 2010.[43]
    In early 2017, Fabian general secretary Andrew Harrop produced a report[44] arguing the only feasible route for Labour to return to government would be to work with the Liberal Democrats and Scottish National Party. The report predicted Labour would win fewer than 150 seats in the 2017 United Kingdom general election, the lowest number since 1935, due to Brexit, lack of support in Scotland, and Labour leader Jeremy Corbyn's unpopularity, although in the event the party won 262.[45][46]
    Fabianism outside the United Kingdom [ edit ] The major influence on the Labour Party and on the English-speaking socialist movement worldwide, has meant that Fabianism became one of the main inspirations of international social democracy.
    In February 1895, an American Fabian Society was established in Boston by W. D. P. Bliss, a prominent Christian socialist.[47] The group published a periodical, The American Fabian, and issued a small series of pamphlets.[47] Around the same time a parallel organisation emerged on the Pacific coast, centred in California, under the influence of socialist activist Laurence Gronlund.[47] American Fabianism lasted for less than a decade.[48]
    Similar societies exist in Australia the Australian Fabian Society, in Canada the Douglas''Coldwell Foundation and the now-disbanded League for Social Reconstruction, and in New Zealand The NZ Fabian Society.[49]
    Direct or indirect Fabian influence may also be seen in the liberal socialism of Carlo Rosselli (founder, with his brother Nello, of the anti-fascist group Giustizia e Libert ) and all its derivatives such as the Action Party in Italy.[50]The Community Movement, created by the socialist entrepreneur Adriano Olivetti, was then the only Italian party which referred explicitly to Fabianism, among his main inspirations along with federalism, social liberalism, fighting partitocracy and social democracy.[51]
    In 2000, the Sicilian Fabian Society was founded in Messina.[52]
    Structure [ edit ] It is written into the rules of the society that it has no policies. All the publications carry a disclaimer saying that they do not represent the collective views of the society but only the views of the authors. "No resolution of a political character expressing an opinion or calling for action, other than in relation to the running of the Society itself, shall be put forward in the name of the Society."[53]
    Executive committee [ edit ] The Fabian Society is governed by an elected executive committee. The committee consists of 10 ordinary members elected from a national list, three members nationally elected from a list nominated by local groups, representatives from the Young Fabians, Fabians Women's Network and Scottish and Welsh Fabians. There is also one staff representative and a directly elected honorary treasurer from the membership. Elections are held every other year, with the exception of the Young Fabians and staff representation which are elected annually. The committee meets quarterly and elect a chair and at least one vice-chair annually to conduct its business. The current chair of the Fabian Society is Martin Edobor.[54]
    Secretariat [ edit ] The Fabian Society have a number of employees based in their headquarters in London. The secretariat is led by a general secretary, who is the organisation's CEO. The staff are arranged into departments including Research, Editorial, Events and Operations.
    Fabian Review [ edit ] The Fabian Society publishes the Fabian Review, a quarterly magazine.[55]
    Young Fabians [ edit ] Since 1960, members aged under 31 years of age are also members of the Young Fabians. This group has its own elected Chair, executive committee and sub-groups. The Young Fabians are a voluntary organisation that serves as an incubator for member-led activities such as policy and social events, pamphlets and delegations. Within the group are five special interest communities called Networks that are run by voluntary steering groups and elect their own Chair and officers. The current Networks are Economy & Finance, Health, International Affairs, Education, Communications (Industry), Environment, Tech, Devolution & Local Government, Law, and Arts & Culture.[56] It also publishes the quarterly magazine Anticipations.
    Fabian Women's Network [ edit ] All female members of the Fabian Society are also members of the Fabian Women's Network. This group has its own elected Chair and Executive Committee which organises conferences and events and works with the wider political movement to secure increased representation for women in politics and public life. It has a flagship mentoring programme that recruits on an annual basis, and its president is Seema Malhotra, a Labour Party and Co-operative MP. The Network also publishes the quarterly magazine, Fabiana, runs a range of public speaking events, works closely in partnership with a range of women's campaigning organisations and regularly hosts a fringe at the Labour Party conference.
    Local Fabians [ edit ] There are 45 local Fabian societies across the UK, bringing Fabian debates to communities around the country. Some, such as Bournemouth and Oxford, have long histories, dating from the 1890s,[57][58] though most have waxed and waned over the years. The Fabian local societies were given a major boost during the Second World War when re-founded by G. D. H. Cole and Margaret Cole,[59] who noted renewed interest in socialism and that wartime evacuation created chances for Fabians to strengthen influence outside London.[60] Many local societies are affiliated to their local constituency Labour Party and have their own executive bodies. These local branches are affiliated to the national Fabians and local members have the same voting rights as their national counterparts.
    Influence on the political right [ edit ] When founded in 1884 as a parliamentarian organisation, there was no leftist party with which the Fabians could connect. As such, they initially attempted to 'permeate' the Liberals, with some success. The foundation of the Labour Party in 1900 signalled a change in tactics,[61] although Fabian-Liberal links on specific topics such as welfare reform lasted well into the interwar period.[62][63]
    More recent studies have examined their impact on the Conservatives, such as the foundation of Ashridge College, explicitly designed in the 1930s to create Conservative Fabians.[64][65][66]
    Critiques of the Fabians [ edit ] As one of the world's oldest and most prominent think tanks, the Fabians have sometimes fallen under attack, more often from the left than the right.
    Most older critiques focused on the Fabians' political organisation efforts, and claims to have been influential.
    Although H. G. Wells was a member of the Fabian Society from 1903 to 1908, he was a critic of its operations, particularly in his 1905 paper "The Faults of the Fabian", in which he claimed the Society was a middle-class talking shop.[67] He later parodied the society in his 1910 novel The New Machiavelli.[68]
    During the First World War, Vladimir Lenin wrote that the Fabians were "social-chauvinists", "undoubtedly the most consummate expression of opportunism and of Liberal-Labour policy". Drawing from Friedrich Engels, Lenin declared the Fabians were "a gang of bourgeois rogues who would demoralise the workers, influence them in a counter-revolutionary spirit".[69]
    In the 1920s, Leon Trotsky critiqued the Fabian Society as provincial, boring and unnecessary, particularly to the working class. He wrote that their published works "serve merely to explain to the Fabians themselves why Fabianism exists in the world".[70]
    The post-war Communist Party Historians Group was critical of the Fabians, and indeed the post-war consensus, with its strong social-democratic influence. The Marxist historian Eric Hobsbawm wrote his PhD thesis attacking claims from the early Fabians to have been originators of the Labour Party and the post-war consensus. Instead he argued that the credit should be given to the more autonomous, working-class Independent Labour Party.[71][72]
    In more recent years, critiques of the early Fabians have focused on other areas.
    In an article published in The Guardian on 14 February 2008 (following the apology offered by Australian Prime Minister Kevin Rudd to the "stolen generations"), Geoffrey Robertson criticised Fabian socialists for providing the intellectual justification for the eugenics policy that led to the stolen generations scandal.[73][74] Similar claims have been repeated in The Spectator.[75]
    In 2009, making a speech in the United States, the then British MP George Galloway denounced the Fabian Society for its failure to support the uprising of Easter 1916 in Dublin during which an Irish Republic was proclaimed.[76]
    Funding [ edit ] The Fabian Society has been rated as "broadly transparent" in its funding by Transparify.[77] In November 2022, the funding transparency website Who Funds You? gave the Fabian Society an A grade, the highest transparency rating (rating goes from A to E).[78]
    See also [ edit ] Ethical movementKeir HardieLabour Research DepartmentList of Fabian Tracts to 1915List of think tanks in the United KingdomNew StatesmanThe New Age [ edit ] ^ Thomson, George (1 March 1976). "The Tindemans Report and the European Future" (PDF) . ^ Cole, Margaret (1961). The Story of Fabian Socialism . Stanford University Press. ISBN 978-0804700917. ^ a b Perdue, Jon B. (2012). The War of All the People: The Nexus of Latin American Radicalism and Middle Eastern Terrorism (1st ed.). Washington, D.C.: Potomac Books. p. 97. ISBN 978-1597977043. ^ a b Matthews, Race (1993). Australia's First Fabians: Middle-class Radicals, Labour Activists and the Early Labour Movement. Cambridge University Press. ^ a b Dunham, William Huse (1975). "From Radicalism to Socialism: Men and Ideas in the Formation of Fabian Socialist Doctrines, 1881''1889". History: Reviews of New Books. 3 (10): 263. doi:10.1080/03612759.1975.9945148. ^ Edward R. Pease, A History of the Fabian Society. New York: E.P. Dutton & Co., 1916. ^ Pease, 1916 ^ "The History of Essex Hall by Mortimer Rowe, Lindsey Press, 1959, chapter 5". Unitarian.org.uk. Archived from the original on 16 January 2012 . Retrieved 2 January 2012 . ^ "Fabian Society". Encyclopedia Britannica . Retrieved 24 August 2017 . ^ Quoted in McBriar, A.M., Fabian Socialism and English Politics, 1884''1918. [1962] Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1966; p. 9. ^ a b McBriar, Alan M. (1962). Fabian Socialism and English Politics, 1884''1918. Cambridge University Press. ^ a b c Cole, Margaret (1961). The Story of Fabian Socialism . Stanford University Press. ISBN 978-1163700105. ^ Pease, Edward R. (1916). The History of the Fabian Society. ^ See The Webbs on the Web bibliography ^ a b Kevin Morgan, Labour Legends and Russian Gold: Bolshevism and the British Left, Part 1. London: Lawrence and Wishart, 2006; p. 63. ^ A full list of Fabian pamphlets is available at the Fabian Society Online Archive Archived 9 July 2011 at the Wayback Machine ^ Freedland, Jonathan (17 February 2012). "Eugenics: the skeleton that rattles loudest in the left's closet | Jonathan Freedland". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077 . Retrieved 15 June 2020 . ^ "Fabian Society". Archived from the original on 7 December 2006. ^ Crawford, Elizabeth (1999). The women's suffrage movement : a reference guide, 1866-1928. London: UCL Press. pp. 269''271, 694. ISBN 1-84142-031-X. ^ Bernard Semmel, Imperialism and Social Reform: English Social-Imperial Thought 1895''1914 (New York: Anchor, 1968), p. 63. ^ a b Semmel, p. 61. ^ Semmel, p. 62. ^ Annie Besant. "The Future Socialism". Bibby's Annual (reprinted by Adyar Pamphlet). OCLC 038686071. Archived from the original on 16 January 2016 . Retrieved 10 July 2012 . ^ Padma Desai and Jagdish Bhagwati (April 1975). "Socialism and Indian economic policy". World Development. 3 (4): 213''21. doi:10.1016/0305-750X(75)90063-7. ^ B.K. Nehru (Spring 1990). "Socialism at crossroads". India International Centre Quarterly. 17 (1): 1''12. JSTOR 23002177. ^ Virmani, Arvind (October 2005). "Policy Regimes, Growth and Poverty in India: Lessons of Government Failure and Entrepreneurial Success" (PDF) . Working Paper No. 170. Indian Council for Research on International Economic Relations, New Delhi. ^ a b Michael Barr (March 2000). "Lee Kuan Yew's Fabian Phase". Australian Journal of Politics & History. 46 (1): 110''26. doi:10.1111/1467-8497.00088. ^ Amatzia Baram (Spring 2003). "Broken Promises". Wilson Quarterly. Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars. ^ L. M. Kenny (Winter 1963''1964). "The Goal of Arab Unification". International Journal. 19 (1): 50''61. doi:10.2307/40198692. JSTOR 40198692. ^ Kamel S. Abu Jaber (Spring 1966). "SalÄmah MÅsÄ: Precursor of Arab Socialism". Middle East Journal. 20 (2): 196''206. JSTOR 4323988. ^ "Collection: Papers of the Fabian Colonial Bureau | Bodleian Archives & Manuscripts". archives.bodleian.ox.ac.uk . Retrieved 16 March 2022 . ^ a b Kahler, Miles (1984). Decolonization in Britain and France: The Domestic Consequences of International Relations. Princeton University Press. p. 236. ISBN 978-1-4008-5558-2. ^ "Our History". Fabians . Retrieved 17 June 2018 . ^ "The Fabian Society: a brief history". The Guardian. 13 August 2001. ISSN 0261-3077 . Retrieved 24 August 2017 . ^ Mark Wickham-Jones (2005). "Party Officials, Experts and Policy-making: The Case of British Labour" (PDF) . r/ French Political Science Association. ^ Sunder Katwala (14 September 2003). "Observer review: The Prudence of Mr Gordon Brown by William Keegan | By genre | guardian.co.uk Books". London: Politics.guardian.co.uk . Retrieved 2 January 2012 . ^ Press release, A piece of Fabian history unveiled at LSE Archived 5 February 2007 at the Wayback Machine, London School of Economics & Political Science Archives, Last accessed 23 February 2007 ^ Andrew Walker, Wit, wisdom and windows, BBC News, Last accessed 23 February 2007 ^ Annual Report 2016 (PDF) (Report). Fabian Society. 2016 . Retrieved 7 July 2017 . ^ Annual Report 2019 (PDF) (Report). Fabian Society. 2019 . Retrieved 19 March 2020 . ^ Andrew Rawnsley, columnist of the year (22 December 2001). "Honesty turns out to be the best policy". The Observer. London . Retrieved 2 January 2012 . ^ "Think tank calls for NHS tax". BBC News. 27 November 2000 . Retrieved 2 January 2012 . ^ "In defence of earmarked taxes '' FT 07/12/00". Samuelbrittan.co.uk. 15 December 1994. Archived from the original on 12 January 2012 . Retrieved 2 January 2012 . ^ Harrop, Andrew (3 January 2017). Stuck '' How Labour is too weak to win and too strong to die (PDF) (Report). Fabian Society . Retrieved 26 June 2017 . ^ Walker, Peter (2 January 2017). "Labour could slump to below 150 MPs, Fabian Society warns". The Guardian . Retrieved 26 June 2017 . ^ MacLellan, Kylie (3 January 2017). "UK's opposition Labour 'too weak' to win an election: think tank". Reuters . Retrieved 26 June 2017 . ^ a b c William D.P. Bliss (ed.), The Encyclopedia of Social Reforms. Third Edition. New York: Funk and Wagnalls Co., 1897; pg. 578. ^ Jenkin, Thomas P. (June 1948). "The American Fabian Movement". Western Political Quarterly. 1 (2): 113''123. doi:10.1177/106591294800100202. ISSN 0043-4078. S2CID 153833198. ^ "The NZ Fabian Society". www.fabians.org.nz. 18 November 2019. ^ Leo Valiani, Socialismo liberale. Carlo Rosselli, tra Critica Sociale e Fabian Society ^ "Olivetti: comunitarismo e sovranit industriale nell'Italia postbellica". millennivm.org. Archived from the original on 29 May 2014 . Retrieved 21 November 2014 . ^ "Societ Fabiana Siciliana '' Associazione dei Socialisti Riformisti della Sicilia '' Sedi regionali a Messina e Palermo". www.fabiana.it. ^ "Rules of the Fabian Society November 2017" (PDF) . Fabian Society . Retrieved 17 June 2018 . ^ "POLITICO London Influence December 17 2020". politico. 17 December 2020 . Retrieved 17 December 2020 . ^ "Fabian Review". Fabian Society. Archived from the original on 13 August 2022 . Retrieved 12 January 2023 . ^ "Networks". Young Fabians. ^ Hatts, Leigh, Fabians in Bournemouth (1984) ^ Weatherburn, Michael, et al, "The First Century of Oxford Fabianism, 1895-1995", Oxfordshire Local History (2020) ^ Fabian Quarterly, 1944. ^ Cole, Margaret. The life of G.D.H. Cole. Macmillan; New York: St. Martin's Press, 1971. ^ Clarke, Peter, and P. F. Clarke. Liberals and social democrats. Cambridge University Press, 1981. ^ Clarke, Peter, and P. F. Clarke. Liberals and Social Democrats. Cambridge University Press, 1981. ^ Briggs, Asa. A Study of the Work of Seebohm Rowntree, 1871-1954.(Social Thought and Social Action). Longmans, 1961. ^ Berthez¨ne, Clarisse. "Creating Conservative Fabians: the Conservative party, political education and the founding of Ashridge College." Past & Present 182 (2004): 211-240. ^ Berthez¨ne, Clarisse. "Archives: Ashridge College, 1929''54: A Glimpse at the Archive of a Conservative Intellectual Project." Contemporary British History 19.1 (2005): 79-93. ^ Berthez¨ne, Clarisse. Training Minds for the war of ideas: Ashridge College, the Conservative Party and the cultural politics of Britain, 1929-54. 2015. ^ Taunton, Matthew. "H G Wells's politics". The British Library . Retrieved 5 October 2016 . ^ H. G. Wells, The New Machiavelli, Dunfield & co., New York (1910) ^ V.I. Lenin, British Pacifism and the British Dislike of Theory. Written in June 1915. First published on July 27, 1924, in Pravda. https://www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/1915/jun/x02.htm ^ Leon Trotsky, The Fabian 'Theory' of Socialism (1925). https://fabians.org.uk/permeating-politics/ ^ Hobsbawm, Eric J. Labouring men: Studies in the history of labour. Basic Books, 1965. ^ Evans, Richard J. Eric Hobsbawm: a life in history. Hachette UK, 2019. ^ Geoffrey Robertson (13 February 2008). "We should say sorry, too". The Guardian. London. ^ L.J. Ray (1983). "Eugenics, Mental Deficiency and Fabian Socialism between the Wars". Oxford Review of Education. 9 (3): 213''22. doi:10.1080/0305498830090305. ^ "How eugenics poisoned the welfare state | The Spectator". The Spectator. 25 November 2009 . Retrieved 26 December 2016 . ^ pas1888 (29 December 2009). "George Galloway Easter Rising 1916" '' via YouTube. ^ "Round-Up of Transparify 2018 Ratings". Transparify . Retrieved 7 July 2019 . ^ "Who Funds You? The Fabian Society". {{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link) Further reading [ edit ] Howell, David (1983). British Workers and the Independent Labour Party, 1888''1906. Manchester: Manchester University Press. McBriar, A.M. (1962). Fabian Socialism and English Politics, 1884''1918. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. McKernan, James A., "The origins of critical theory in education: Fabian socialism as social reconstructionism in nineteenth-century Britain". British Journal of Educational Studies 61.4 (2013): 417''433.Pease, Edward R. (1916). A History of the Fabian Society. New York: E. P. Dutton & Co. The History of the Fabian Society public domain audiobook at LibriVoxRadice, Lisanne (1984). Beatrice and Sidney Webb: Fabian Socialists. London: Macmillan. Shaw, George Bernard, ed. (1906) [1892]. The Fabian Society: Its Early History. London: Fabian Society. Shaw, George Bernard, ed. (1931). Fabian Essays in Socialism. London: Fabian Society. Wolfe, Willard (1975). From Radicalism to Socialism: Men and Ideas in the Formation of Fabian Socialist Doctrines, 1881''1889 . New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. ISBN 9780300013030. MacKenzie, Norman & Jeanne (1977). The First Fabians. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson. ISBN 9780297770909. External links [ edit ] Official website Finding Aid for the Fabian Society archives, British Library of Political and Economic Science, London School of EconomicsFabian Society and Young Fabian Collection, British Library of Political and Economic Science, London School of EconomicsAnnual Reports 1894''1918Fabian Tracts 1893''1990
  German American Bund - Wikipedia
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    From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
    American Nazi organization
    The German American Bund, or the German American Federation (German: Amerikadeutscher Bund; Amerikadeutscher Volksbund, AV), was a German-American Nazi organization which was established in 1936 as a successor to the Friends of New Germany (FoNG, FDND in German). The organization chose its new name in order to emphasize its American credentials after the press accused it of being unpatriotic. The Bund was allowed to consist only of American citizens of German descent.[6] Its main goal was to promote a favorable view of Nazi Germany.
    History [ edit ] Friends of New Germany [ edit ] In May 1933, Nazi Deputy F¼hrer Rudolf Hess gave German immigrant and German Nazi Party member Heinz Spankn¶bel authority to form an American Nazi organization.[7] Shortly thereafter, with help from the German consul in New York City, Spankn¶bel created the Friends of New Germany[7] by merging two older organizations in the United States, Gau-USA[8][9][10][11][12] and the Free Society of Teutonia, which were both small groups with only a few hundred members each. The FoNG was based in New York City but had a strong presence in Chicago.[7] Male members wore a uniform, a white shirt, black trousers and a black hat adorned with a red symbol. Female members wore a white blouse and a black skirt.[13]
    The organization which was led by Spankn¶bel was openly pro-Nazi, and it engaged in activities such as storming the German language New Yorker Staats-Zeitung and demanding that it publish pro-Nazi articles, and infiltrating other non-political German-American organizations. One of the Friends' early initiatives was to use propaganda to counter the Jewish boycott of German goods, which was started in March 1933 as a protest against Nazi anti-Semitism.[14]
    In an internal battle for control of the Friends, Spankn¶bel was ousted as its leader and subsequently, he was deported in October 1933 because he had failed to register as a foreign agent.[7]
    At the same time, Congressman Samuel Dickstein, Chairman of the Committee on Naturalization and Immigration, became aware of the substantial number of foreigners who were legally and illegally entering the country and residing in it, and the growing anti-Semitism along with vast amounts of anti-Semitic literature which were being distributed in the country. This led him to independently investigate the activities of Nazi and fascist groups, leading to the formation of the Special Committee on Un-American Activities which was Authorized to Investigate Nazi Propaganda activities and Certain Other Propaganda Activities. Throughout the rest of 1934, the Committee conducted hearings, bringing most of the major figures in the American fascist movement before it.[15] Dickstein's investigation concluded that the Friends represented a branch of German dictator Adolf Hitler's Nazi Party in the United States.[16][17]
    The organization existed into the mid-1930s, although it always remained small, with a membership of between 5,000 and 10,000, mostly consisting of German citizens who were living in the United States and German emigrants who had only recently become citizens.[7] In December 1935, Rudolf Hess ordered all German citizens to leave the FoNG and all of its leaders were recalled to Germany.[7]
    Bund's activities [ edit ] German American Bund parade on East 86th St., New York City, October 30, 1939
    On March 19, 1936, the German American Bund was established as a follow-up organization for the Friends of New Germany in Buffalo, New York.[7][18] The Bund elected a German-born American citizen Fritz Julius Kuhn as its leader (Bundesf¼hrer).[19] Kuhn was a veteran because he served in the Bavarian infantry during World War I and he was also an Alter K¤mpfer (old fighter) for the Nazi Party who was granted American citizenship in 1934. Kuhn was initially effective as a leader because he was able to unite the organization and expand its membership but later, he simply came to be seen as an incompetent swindler and a liar.[7]
    The administrative structure of the Bund mimicked the regional administrative subdivision of the Nazi Party. The German American Bund divided the United States into three Gaue: Gau Ost (East), Gau West and Gau Midwest.[20] Together the three Gaue comprised 69 Ortsgruppen (local groups): 40 in Gau Ost (17 in New York), 10 in Gau West and 19 in Gau Midwest.[20] Each Gau had its own Gauleiter and staff to direct the Bund operations in the region in accordance with the F¼hrerprinzip.[20] The Bund's national headquarters was located at 178 East 85th Street in the New York City borough of Manhattan.[2]
    A
    sig rune on the flag of the Bund's youth organization
    The Bund established a number of training camps, including Camp Nordland in Sussex County, New Jersey, Camp Siegfried in Yaphank, New York, Camp Hindenburg in Grafton, Wisconsin, and the Deutschhorst Country Club in Sellersville, Pennsylvania,[21] Camp Bergwald in Bloomingdale, New Jersey,[7][22][23][24][21] and Camp Highland in Windham, New York.[25] The Bund held rallies with Nazi insignia and procedures such as the Hitler salute and attacked the administration of President Franklin D. Roosevelt, Jewish-American groups, Communism, "Moscow-directed" trade unions and American boycotts of German goods.[7][26] The organization claimed to show its loyalty to America by displaying the flag of the United States alongside the flag of Nazi Germany at Bund meetings, and declared that George Washington was "the first Fascist" who did not believe democracy would work.[27]
    Kuhn and a few other Bundmen traveled to Berlin to attend the 1936 Summer Olympics. During the trip, he visited the Reich Chancellery, where his picture was taken with Hitler.[7] This act did not constitute an official Nazi approval for Kuhn's organization: German Ambassador to the United States Hans-Heinrich Dieckhoff expressed his disapproval and concern over the group to Berlin, causing distrust between the Bund and the Nazi regime.[7] The organization received no financial or verbal support from Germany. In response to the outrage of Jewish war veterans, Congress in 1938 passed the Foreign Agents Registration Act requiring foreign agents to register with the State Department. On March 1, 1938, the Nazi government decreed that no Reichsdeutsche [German nationals] could be a member of the Bund, and that no Nazi emblems were to be used by the organization.[7] This was done both to appease the U.S. and to distance Germany from the Bund, which was increasingly a cause of embarrassment with its rhetoric and actions.[7] The Bund held its sixth annual convention in early September 1938 in New York.[28]
    Arguably, the zenith of the Bund's activities was the rally at Madison Square Garden in New York City on February 20, 1939.[29] Some 20,000 people attended and heard Gerhard Wilhelm Kunze, the Bund's National Public Relations Officer,[30] criticize President Roosevelt by repeatedly referring to him as "Frank D. Rosenfeld", calling his New Deal the "Jew Deal", and denouncing what he believed to be Bolshevik-Jewish American leadership.[31] Most shocking to American sensibilities was the outbreak of violence between protesters and Bund storm troopers. The rally was the subject of the 2017 short documentary A Night at the Garden by Marshall Curry.[32]
    Decline [ edit ] In 1939, a New York tax investigation determined that Kuhn had embezzled $14,000 from the Bund (equivalent to $295,000 in 2022). The Bund did not seek to have Kuhn prosecuted, operating on the principle (F¼hrerprinzip) that the leader had absolute power. However, New York City's district attorney prosecuted him in an attempt to cripple the Bund. On December 5, 1939, Kuhn was sentenced to two and a half to five years in prison for tax evasion and embezzlement.[33]
    New Bund leaders replaced Kuhn, most notably Gerhard Kunze, but only for brief periods. A year after the outbreak of World War II, Congress enacted a peacetime military draft in September 1940. The Bund counseled members of draft age to evade conscription, a criminal offense punishable by up to five years in jail and a $10,000 fine. Gerhard Kunze fled to Mexico in November 1941. However, Mexican authorities forced him to return to the United States, where he was sentenced to 15 years in prison for espionage.[13][34]
    U.S. Congressman Martin Dies (D-Texas) and his House Committee on Un-American Activities were active in denying any Nazi-sympathetic organization the ability to operate freely during World War II. In the last week of December 1942, led by journalist Dorothy Thompson, fifty leading German-Americans (including baseball icon Babe Ruth) signed a "Christmas Declaration by men and women of German ancestry" condemning Nazism, which appeared in ten major American daily newspapers.
    While Kuhn was in prison, his citizenship was canceled on June 1, 1943. Upon his release after he served 43 months in state prison, Kuhn was re-arrested on June 21, 1943, as an enemy alien and interned by the federal government at a camp in Crystal City, Texas. After the war, Kuhn was interned at Ellis Island and deported to Germany on September 15, 1945.[35] He died on December 14, 1951, in Munich, West Germany.[36]
    According to historian Leland V. Bell, George Froboese,[37] the Midwestern leader of the group (who had traveled to the 1936 Berlin Olympics with Kuhn to meet Hitler)[38] and "a few lesser known Bundists committed suicide," and "some Bundists had their naturalizations revoked and spent a few months in detention camps". In addition, 24 officers of the organization were convicted of conspiracy to violate the 1940 Selective Service Act in 1942. All of the defendants received the maximum 5-year sentences which were allowed under the charge. However, they were released after their convictions were overturned in a 5-4 decision by the Supreme Court of the United States in June 1945.[39][40]
    See also [ edit ] Christian Front (United States)Christian Nationalist CrusadeChristian Party (United States, 1930s)Fascist League of North AmericaSilver Legion of AmericaJoe K spy ring, recruited Nazi spies out of the Bund 1940''41References [ edit ] Notes
    ^ Bell, L. V. (1970). "The Failure of Nazism in America: The German American Bund, 1936-1941". Political Science Quarterly. 85 (4): 598. doi:10.2307/2147597. JSTOR 2147597. ^ a b Federal Bureau of Investigation. "German American Federation/Bund Part 11 of 11". Federal Bureau of Investigation. ^ "American Nazi organization rally at Madison Square Garden, 1939". Rare Historical Photos. February 19, 2014. ^ "German American Bund". Holocaust Encyclopedia. July 2, 2016. ^ William, Chris. "The German American Bund: The Enemy Within". Military Trader . Retrieved October 3, 2021 . Gau USA was a domestic offshoot of the German Nazi party and took orders from its superiors in the old Fatherland. Because of internal issues and a lack of adequate organization, Gau USA was ordered dissolved in 1933 when Hitler came to power. In April 1933, the Gau USA Detroit leader, Heinz Spanknobel, traveled to Germany and was granted permission to reorganize a new group in the US. The following July, he formed Die Freunde des Neuen Deutschland (FDND '-- The Friends of the New Germany). Many of the old Teutonia Club and Gau USA leaders were brought in to help run the new organization under the strict guidance of Spanknobel. However, due to poor management skills, overbearing direction, and political wrangling, Spanknobel left the US and was later replaced by Teutonia founder, Fritz Gissibl. ^ Van Ells, Mark D. (August 2007). Americans for Hitler '' The Bund. America in WWII. Vol. 3. pp. 44''49 . Retrieved May 13, 2016 . ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n "American Bund". Archived from the original on January 24, 2018 . Retrieved March 2, 2011 . ^ Diamond, Sander A. (1970). "The Years of Waiting: National Socialism in the United States, 1922''1933". American Jewish Historical Quarterly. Johns Hopkins University Press, American Jewish Historical Society. 59 (3): 265. JSTOR 23877858. In one swift move that was to have an enormous implication for the infant Nazi movement in America, Nieland over looked Teutonia and designated the New York City cell as a Department (Gau) of the NSDAP. By June, local units of the New York Gau were opened in Seattle, St. Louis, Milwaukee and Chicago. By September, the American section of the NSDAP claimed to have over 1,500 members and it even had a Women's Division in Chicago. Nieland's decision threw the Teutonia Group into a state of complete dismay. But Not only had he dismissed Teutonia as the potential base on which Gau-USA could have been built, he also engendered a situation that caused Party members to withdraw from the organization because they wanted to belong to a "real" Nazi movement. (The official name of Nieland's organization was the Auslands Abteilung der Reichs Leitung der NSDAP. On the formation of a Women's Division, Application to Kameradschaft-USA, Martha Schnieder, Leiterin der Frauenschaft der Ortsgruppen Chicago, 1932 1935. RUckwanderer Materials, 3/140/177983; on the development of Gau-XJSA, cf. Alfred Erinn to Gauleitung Hamburg, Feb. 2, 1931. 3/147/185886.) ^ Nazi Party/Foreign Organization ^ de:NSDAP/AO ^ William, Chris. "The German American Bund: The Enemy Within". Military Trader . Retrieved October 3, 2021 . Gau USA was a domestic offshoot of the German Nazi party and it took orders from its superiors in the old Fatherland. Because of internal issues and a lack of adequate organization, Gau USA was ordered to dissolve itself in 1933 when Hitler came to power. In April 1933, the Gau USA's Detroit leader, Heinz Spanknobel, traveled to Germany and he was granted permission to reorganize a new group in the US. The following July, he formed Die Freunde des Neuen Deutschland (FDND '-- The Friends of the New Germany). Many of the leaders of the old Teutonia Club and Gau USA were brought in to help run the new organization under the strict guidance of Spanknobel. However, due to his poor management skills, his overbearing direction, and political wrangling, Spanknobel left the US and he was later replaced by Teutonia's founder, Fritz Gissibl. ^ Smith, Arthur L. (October 2003). "Kurt Ludecke: The Man Who Knew Hitler". German Studies Review. 26 (3): 597''606. doi:10.2307/1432749. JSTOR 1432749 . Retrieved October 3, 2021 . Reichsschatzmeister to the Auslands - Abteilung der NSDAP ^ a b Fritz Kuhn: Biography IMDb ^ Hawkins, Richard A. (2010), "The internal politics of the Non-Sectarian Anti-Nazi League to Champion Human Rights, 1933''1939", Management & Organizational History, 5 (2): 251''78, doi:10.1177/1744935910361642, S2CID 145170586 Hawkins, Richard A. (2010), "The internal politics of the Non-Sectarian Anti-Nazi League to Champion Human Rights, 1933''1939", Management & Organizational History, 5 (2): 251''278, doi:10.1177/1744935910361642, S2CID 145170586 ^ Berlet, Chip; Lyons, Matthew Nemiroff (2000). Right-Wing Populism in America: Too Close for Comfort . Guilford Press. ISBN 978-1-57230-562-5. ^ Shaffer, Ryan (Spring 2010). "Long Island Nazis: A Local Synthesis of Transnational Politics". Vol. 21, no. 2. Journal of Long Island History. Archived from the original on June 21, 2010 . Retrieved November 19, 2010 . ^ Investigation of un-American propaganda activities in the United States. Hearings before a Special Committee on Un-American Activities, House of Representatives, Seventy-fifth Congress, third session-Seventy-eighth Congress, second session, on H. Res. 282, to investigate (l) the extent, character, and objects of un-American propaganda activities in the United States, (2) the diffusion within the United States of subversive and un-American propaganda that is instigated from foreign countries or of a domestic origin and attacks the principle of the form of government as guaranteed by our Constitution, and (3) all other questions in relation thereto that would aid Congress in any necessary remedial legislation ^ "Fritz Kuhn Death in 1951 Revealed. Lawyer Says Former Leader of German-American Bund Succumbed in Munich". The New York Times. AP. February 2, 1953 . Retrieved July 20, 2008 . Fritz Kuhn, once the arrogant, noisy leader of the pro-Hitler German-American Bund, died here more than a year ago '' a poor and obscure chemist, unheralded and unsung. ^ Blamires, Cyprian; Jackson, Paul (2006). World fascism: a historical encyclopedia, Volume 1. ABC-CLIO. p. 270. ISBN 0-8223-0772-3. ^ a b c Wilhelm, Cornelia [in German] (1998). Bewegung oder Verein?: nationalsozialistische Volkspolitik in dem USA [Movement or Association: National Socialism in the USA] (in German). Franz Steiner Verlag. p. 167. ISBN 3-515-06805-8. ^ a b "German-American Bund". Encyclop...dia Britannica . Retrieved February 5, 2012 . ^ "German films about Camp Bergwald, the Bund Camp on Federal Hill, Riverdale, NJ". Motion Picture, Sound, and Video Branch (NWDNM), National Archives . Retrieved February 5, 2012 . ^ Jackson, Kenneth T. The Encyclopedia of New York City. The New York Historical Society, Yale University Press, 1995, 462. ^ Chalmers, David Mark (1987). Hooded Americanism: The History of the Ku Klux Klan. ISBN 1-57607-940-6. When Arthur Bell, your Grand Giant, and Mr. Smythe asked us about using Camp Nordlund for this patriotic meeting, we decided to let them have it ... ^ "Windham was home to Nazi summer camp in 1937," by Julia Reischel, (Watershed Post; Monday, August 18, 2014 - 12:10 pm) ^ Kollander, Patricia; O'Sullivan, John (2005). "I must be a part of this war": a German American's fight against Hitler and Nazism. Fordham Univ Press. p. 37. ISBN 0-8232-2528-3. ^ "Nazis Hail George Washington as First Fascist". Life. March 7, 1938. p. 17 . Retrieved November 25, 2011 . ^ Taylor, Alan (June 5, 2017). "American Nazis in the 1930s'--The German American Bund - The Atlantic". The Atlantic . Retrieved May 6, 2023 . ^ "Bund Activities Widespread. Evidence Taken by Dies Committee Throws Light on Meaning of the Garden Rally". The New York Times. February 26, 1939 . Retrieved February 19, 2015 . Disorders attendant upon Nazi rallies in New York and Los Angeles this week again focused attention upon the Nazi movement in the United States and inspired conjectures as to its strength and influence. ^ "Vonsiatsky Espionage". FBI.gov. Federal Bureau of Investigation . Retrieved March 14, 2022 . In August, 1937, [Kunze] was appointed by Fritz Kuhn, then National Leader of the Fund, as National Public Relations Officer and from October, 1937, on he was employed on a full-time basis at the national headquarters of the Bund in New York City. ^ "When Nazis Rallied at Madison Square Garden". WNYC Archives. Event occurs at 1:05:54 . Retrieved March 14, 2022 . ...and in our political life, where a Henry Morgenthau takes the place of men like Alexander Hamilton, and a Frank D. Rosenfeld takes the place of a George Washington. ^ Buder, Emily (October 10, 2017). "When 20,000 American Nazis Descended Upon New York City". The Atlantic . Retrieved December 6, 2017 . In 1939, the German American Bund organized a rally of 20,000 Nazi supporters at Madison Square Garden in New York City. ^ Adams, Thomas (2005). Germany and the Americas: Culture, Politics, and History: A MultiDisciplinary Encyclopedia. G '' N, volume 2. ABC-CLIO. p. 631. ISBN 1-85109-628-0 . Retrieved January 11, 2011 . ^ "Vonsiatsky Espionage". Federal Bureau of Investigation . Retrieved February 21, 2023 . ^ "Fritz Kuhn, Former Bund Chief, Ordered Back to Germany". The Evening Independent. September 7, 1945. ^ "Fritz Kuhn Death in 1951 Revealed; Lawyer Says Former Leader of German-American Bund Succumbed in Munich". The New York Times. February 2, 1953. ISSN 0362-4331 . Retrieved January 29, 2020 . ^ "Bund Aide Ends Life on Way to Hearing; Milwaukee Man a Suicide Under Train, FBI Reports" . The New York Times. June 17, 1942. ISSN 0362-4331 . Retrieved October 7, 2022 . ^ Giles, Diane (May 9, 2020). "Old Kenosha: The dark times of The Kenosha Volksbund". Kenosha News. Archived from the original on November 1, 2021 . Retrieved October 7, 2022 . ^ Bell, Leland V. (December 1, 1970) [December 1970]. "The Failure of Nazism in America: The German American Bund, 1936-1941". Political Science Quarterly. 85 (4): 585''599. doi:10.2307/2147597. JSTOR 2147597. ^ "Ellensburg Daily Record - Google News Archive Search". news.google.com . Retrieved March 7, 2023 . Further reading
    Allen, Joe (2012-2013) "'It Can't Happen Here?': Confronting the Fascist Threat in the US in the Late 1930s". International Socialist Review Part One: n.85 (September-October 2012), pp. 26''35; Part Two: n.87 (January-February 2013) pp. 19''28.Bell, Leland V. (1973) In Hitler's Shadow; The Anatomy of American Nazism. Associated Faculty Press.Canedy, Susan (1990) Americas Nazis: A Democratic Dilemma a History of the German American Bund Markgraf Publications GroupDiamond, Sander (1974) The Nazi Movement in the United States: 1924''1941. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University PressGrams, Grant W. (2021) Coming Home to the Third Reich: Return Migration of German Nationals from the United States and Canada, 1933''1941. Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland PublishersJenkins, Philip (1997) Hoods and Shirts: The Extreme Right in Pennsylvania, 1925''1950 University of North Carolina Press.de Jong, Louis (1956). The German Fifth Column in the Second World War. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 9781787203242. OCLC 2023177. translated from the Dutch by C.M. Geyl McCartan, Gerald Joseph (1976). An analysis of press coverage of the German American Bund by selected American publications (Thesis). Michigan State University. doi:10.25335/M5T87X . Retrieved October 3, 2021 . Journalism Masters Thesis MacDonnell, Francis (1995) Insidious Foes: The Axis Fifth Column and the American Home Front Oxford University Press.McKale, Donald M. (1977). The Swastika Outside Germany. Kent, Ohio: Kent State University Press. ISBN 0-87338-209-9. Miller, Marvin D. (1983) Wunderlich's Salute: The Interrelationship of the German-American Bund, Camp Siegfried, Yaphank, Long Island, and the Young Siegfrieds and Their Relationship with American and Nazi Institutions Malamud-Rose Publishers.Norwood, Stephen H (2003) "Marauding Youth and the Christian Front: Antisemitic Violence in Boston and New York during World War II" American Jewish History, v.91Schneider, James C. (1989) Should America Go to War? The Debate over Foreign Policy in Chicago, 1939''1941 University of North Carolina PressSt. George, Maximiliam and Dennis, Lawrence (1946)A Trial on Trial: The Great Sedition Trial of 1944 National Civil Rights Committee.Strong, Donald S. (1941) Organized Anti-Semitism in America: The Rise of Group Prejudice during the Decade 1930''40Van Ells, Mark D. (August 2007). Americans for Hitler '' The Bund. America in WWII. Vol. 3. pp. 44''49. External links [ edit ] Home Grown Nazis - A 13 part series for the Chicago Times in Sept. 1937 on Nazi activities in Chicago based on undercover reporting of Chicago Times reporters.Collection of articles in the Mid-Island Mail related to Bund activity in Yaphank, New York (1935''1941) (Longwood Public Library)Mp3 of National Leader Fritz Julius Kuhn address at the 1939 Madison Square Garden rally (from Talking History: The Radio Archives)What Price the Federal Reserve? '' Illustrated anti-Semitic pamphlet issued by the BundAwake and Act '' Pamphlet listing the purposes and aims of the German American BundU.S. Holocaust Memorial Museum article on German-American Bund"Louis Lochner". Archived from the original on January 24, 2018 . Retrieved March 2, 2011 . '' Article by Jim BredemusFBI Records: German American Federation/BundMaterials produced by the Bund are found in the Florence Mendheim Collection of Anti-Semitic Propaganda (#AR 25441); Leo Baeck Institute, New York."A Night at the Garden". Field of Vision. October 11, 2017 . Retrieved December 6, 2017 .
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