• Moe Factz with Adam Curry for January 26th 2022, Episode number 74

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  • Text - H.R.55 - 117th Congress (2021-2022): Emmett Till Antilynching Act | Congress.gov | Library of Congress
  • The Factzmachine
  • Clarence Thomas - Wikipedia
    • Link to Article
    • Archived Version
    • Wed, 26 Jan 2022 22:24
    •  
    • United States Supreme Court justice
    • Clarence Thomas (born June 23, 1948) is an American lawyer who serves as an associate justice of the U.S. Supreme Court. He was nominated by President George H. W. Bush to succeed Thurgood Marshall, and has served since 1991. Thomas is the second African-American to serve on the Court, after Marshall. Since 2018, Thomas has been the senior associate justice, the longest-serving member of the Court, with a tenure of 30 years, 95 days as of January 26, 2022.
    • Thomas grew up in Savannah, Georgia, and was educated at the College of the Holy Cross and Yale Law School. He was appointed an assistant attorney general in Missouri in 1974, and later entered private practice there. In 1979, he became a legislative assistant to United States Senator John Danforth, and in 1981 he was appointed Assistant Secretary for Civil Rights at the U.S. Department of Education. In 1982, President Ronald Reagan appointed Thomas Chairman of the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC).
    • In 1990, President George H. W. Bush nominated Thomas to the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit. He served in that role for 16 months before filling Marshall's seat on the Supreme Court. Thomas's confirmation hearings were bitter and intensely fought, centering on an accusation that he had sexually harassed attorney Anita Hill, a subordinate at the Department of Education and the EEOC. Hill claimed that Thomas made multiple sexual and romantic overtures to her despite her repeatedly telling him to stop. Thomas and his supporters asserted that Hill, as well as the witnesses on her behalf and supporters, had fabricated the allegations to prevent the appointment of a black conservative to the Court. The Senate confirmed Thomas by a vote of 52''48.[1]
    • Supreme Court experts describe Thomas's jurisprudence as textualist, stressing the original meaning of the United States Constitution and statutes. He is also, along with fellow justice Neil Gorsuch, an advocate of natural law. Many writers and political scientists view Thomas as the Court's most conservative member.[2][3][4][5][6][7][8] He is also known for having gone over a decade without asking a question during oral arguments.[9]
    • Early life and education Childhood Thomas was born in 1948 in Pin Point, Georgia, a small, predominantly black community near Savannah founded by freedmen after the Civil War. He was the second of three children born to M. C. Thomas, a farm worker, and Leola "Pigeon" Williams, a domestic worker.[10][11][12] They were descendants of American slaves, and the family spoke Gullah as a first language.[13] Thomas's earliest known ancestors were slaves named Sandy and Peggy, who were born in the late 18th century and owned by wealthy planter Josiah Wilson of Liberty County, Georgia. Thomas's father left the family when Thomas was two years old. Though Thomas's mother worked hard, she was sometimes paid only pennies per day and struggled to earn enough money to feed the family, and was sometimes forced to rely on charity.[15] After a house fire left them homeless, Thomas and his younger brother Myers were taken to live in Savannah with his maternal grandparents, Myers and Christine (n(C)e Hargrove) Anderson.[16]
    • Thomas then experienced amenities such as indoor plumbing and regular meals for the first time.[10] Myers Anderson had little formal education, but built a thriving fuel oil business that also sold ice. Thomas has called Anderson "the greatest man I have ever known."[16] When Thomas was 10, Anderson started taking the family to help at a farm every day from sunrise to sunset.[16] Anderson believed in hard work and self-reliance, and counseled the children to "never let the sun catch you in bed." He also impressed upon his grandsons the importance of a good education.[10]
    • Education Raised Catholic, Thomas attended the predominantly black St. Pius X high school for two years before transferring to St. John Vianney's Minor Seminary on the Isle of Hope, where he was among few black students.[16][17] He also briefly attended Conception Seminary College, a Roman Catholic seminary in Missouri. No one in Thomas's family had attended college.[17] Thomas has said that he left the seminary in the aftermath of the assassination of Martin Luther King, Jr. He had overheard another student say after the shooting, "Good, I hope the son of a bitch died",[12][18] and did not think the church did enough to combat racism.[16]
    • At a nun's suggestion, Thomas enrolled at the College of the Holy Cross in Worcester, Massachusetts, as a sophomore transfer student.[19] While there, Thomas helped found the Black Student Union. He once joined a walkout of the school after some black students were punished while white students went undisciplined for the same violation. Some of the priests negotiated with the protesting black students to reenter the school.[17]
    • Having spoken Gullah as a child, Thomas realized in college that he still sounded unpolished despite having been drilled in grammar at school, and chose to major in English literature "to conquer the language."[21] At Holy Cross, he was also a member of Alpha Sigma Nu and the Purple Key Society.[22] Thomas graduated from Holy Cross in 1971 with an A.B. cum laude in English literature.[21][22]
    • Thomas had a series of deferments from the military draft while at Holy Cross. Upon graduation, he was classified 1-A and received a low lottery number, indicating he might be drafted to serve in Vietnam. Thomas failed his medical exam due to curvature of the spine and was not drafted.[23]
    • Legal education Thomas entered Yale Law School, from which he received a Juris Doctor (J.D.) degree in 1974, graduating in the middle of his class.[24] Thomas has said that the law firms he applied to after graduating from Yale did not take his Juris Doctor seriously, assuming he obtained it because of affirmative action;[25] Dean Louis Pollak wrote in 1969 that Yale Law was then expanding its program of quotas for black applicants, with up to 24 entering that year under a system that deemphasized grades and LSAT scores.[26] According to Thomas, the law firms also "asked pointed questions, unsubtly suggesting that they doubted I was as smart as my grades indicated."[27] In his 2007 memoir, Thomas wrote, "I peeled a fifteen-cent sticker off a package of cigars and stuck it on the frame of my law degree to remind myself of the mistake I'd made by going to Yale. I never did change my mind about its value."
    • Literary influences In 1975, when Thomas read economist Thomas Sowell's Race and Economics, he found an intellectual foundation for his philosophy.[15][29] The book criticizes social reform by government and argues for individual action to overcome circumstances and adversity. Ayn Rand's work also influenced him, particularly The Fountainhead, and he later required his staffers to watch the 1949 film version of the novel.[31][15] Thomas acknowledges "some very strong libertarian leanings."[32]
    • Thomas has said novelist Richard Wright is the most influential writer in his life; Wright's books Native Son and Black Boy "capture[d] a lot of the feelings that I had inside that you learn how to repress."[33] Native Son and Ralph Ellison's Invisible Man are Thomas's two favorite novels.
    • Spike Lee's films also appeal to Thomas, particularly Do the Right Thing and Malcolm X. Thomas has said he would like to meet Lee.
    • Career Early career Thomas with
    • President Ronald Reagan in 1986, while serving as chairman of the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission
    • After graduation, Thomas studied for the Missouri bar at Saint Louis University School of Law. He was admitted to the Missouri bar on September 13, 1974. From 1974 to 1977, he was an Assistant Attorney General of Missouri under State Attorney General John Danforth, a fellow Yale alumnus. Thomas was the only African-American member of Danforth's staff. He worked first in the criminal appeals division of Danforth's office and later in the revenue and taxation division. He has said he considers Assistant Attorney General the best job he ever had. When Danforth was elected to the U.S. Senate in 1976, Thomas left to become an attorney with the Monsanto Chemical Company, in St. Louis, Missouri.
    • Thomas moved to Washington, D.C., and again worked for Danforth from 1979 to 1981 as a legislative assistant handling energy issues for the Senate Commerce Committee. Thomas and Danforth had both studied to be ordained, although in different denominations. Danforth championed Thomas for the Supreme Court.
    • In 1981, Thomas joined the Reagan administration, first as Assistant Secretary of Education for the Office for Civil Rights in the U.S. Department of Education, and then, from 1982 to 1990, as chairman of the U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC). Journalist Evan Thomas once opined that Thomas was "openly ambitious for higher office" during his tenure at the EEOC. As chairman, he promoted a doctrine of self-reliance, and halted the usual EEOC approach of filing class-action discrimination lawsuits, instead pursuing acts of individual discrimination.[42] He also asserted in 1984 that black leaders were "watching the destruction of our race" as they "bitch, bitch, bitch" about Reagan instead of working with the Reagan administration to alleviate teenage pregnancy, unemployment and illiteracy.[43]
    • Federal judge On October 30, 1989, President George H. W. Bush nominated Thomas to the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit, following Robert Bork's departure.[44] This followed Thomas's initial protestations against becoming a judge.[45] Thomas gained the support of other African Americans such as former transportation secretary William Coleman, but said that when meeting white Democratic staffers in the United States Senate, he was "struck by how easy it had become for sanctimonious whites to accuse a black man of not caring about civil rights".[45]
    • Thomas's confirmation hearing was uneventful.[46] The United States Senate confirmed him on March 6, 1990, and he received his commission the same day. He developed warm relationships during his 19 months on the federal court, including with fellow judge Ruth Bader Ginsburg.[45][47]
    • Supreme Court nomination and confirmation Announcement and hearings When Associate Justice William Brennan retired from the Supreme Court in July 1990, Thomas was Bush's favorite among the five candidates on his shortlist for the position. But after consulting his advisors, Bush nominated David Souter of the First Circuit Court of Appeals.[45] A year later, Justice Thurgood Marshall, the only African-American justice on the Court, announced his retirement, and Bush nominated Thomas to replace him.[48] In announcing his selection on July 1, 1991, Bush called Thomas "best qualified at this time".[45]
    • U.S. presidents have traditionally submitted potential federal court nominees to the American Bar Association (ABA) for a confidential rating of their judicial temperament, competence and integrity on a three-level scale of well qualified, qualified or unqualified.[49] Adam Liptak of The New York Times noted that the ABA has historically taken generally liberal positions on divisive issues, and studies suggest that candidates nominated by Democratic presidents fare better in the group's ratings than those nominated by Republicans.[50] Anticipating that the ABA would rate Thomas more poorly than they thought he deserved, the White House and Republican senators pressured the ABA for at least the mid-level qualified rating, and simultaneously attempted to discredit the ABA as partisan.[51] The ABA did rate Thomas as qualified, although with one of the lowest levels of support for a Supreme Court nominee.[52][53]
    • Some of the public statements of Thomas's opponents foreshadowed his confirmation hearings. Liberal interest groups and Republicans in the White House and Senate approached the nomination as a political campaign.[54][55]
    • Attorney General Richard Thornburgh had previously warned Bush that replacing Marshall, who was widely revered as a civil rights icon, with any candidate who was not perceived to share Marshall's views would make confirmation difficult.[56] Civil rights and feminist organizations opposed the appointment based partially on Thomas's criticism of affirmative action and suspicions that Thomas might not support Roe v. Wade.[57]
    • Thomas's formal confirmation hearings began on September 10, 1991. He was reticent when answering senators' questions during the process, recalling what had happened to Robert Bork when Bork expounded on his judicial philosophy during his confirmation hearings four years earlier. Thomas's earlier writings frequently reference the legal theory of natural law; during his confirmation hearings he limited himself to the statement that he regarded natural law as a "philosophical background" to the Constitution.[61][62]
    • On September 27, 1991, after extensive debate, the Judiciary Committee voted 13''1 to send Thomas's nomination to the full Senate without recommendation. A motion earlier in the day to give the nomination a favorable recommendation had failed 7''7.[63] Hill's sexual harassment allegations against Thomas became public after the nomination had been reported out from the committee.[64]
    • Anita Hill allegations At the conclusion of the committee's confirmation hearings, and while the Senate was debating whether to give final approval to Thomas's nomination, an FBI interview with Anita Hill was leaked to the press. As a result, on October 8 the final vote was postponed and the confirmation hearings were reopened.[65] It was only the third time in the Senate's history that such an action was taken, and the first since 1925, when Harlan F. Stone's nomination was recommitted to the Judiciary Committee.[64]
    • Hill was called before the Judiciary Committee and testified that Thomas subjected her to comments of a sexual nature, which she felt constituted sexual harassment, in her words "behavior that is unbefitting an individual who will be a member of the Court."[66][67][68][69] Hill's testimony included lurid details, and some senators questioned her aggressively.[70][71]
    • Thomas was recalled before the committee. He denied the allegations, saying:[72]
    • This is not an opportunity to talk about difficult matters privately or in a closed environment. This is a circus. It's a national disgrace. And from my standpoint, as a black American, as far as I'm concerned it is a high-tech lynching for uppity blacks who in any way deign to think for themselves, to do for themselves, to have different ideas, and it is a message that unless you kowtow to an old order, this is what will happen to you. You will be lynched, destroyed, caricatured by a committee of the U.S. Senate rather than hung from a tree.[73]
    • Throughout his testimony, Thomas defended his right to privacy. He made it clear that he was not going to put his personal life on display for public consumption, permit the committee (or anyone else) to probe his private life, or describe discussions that he may have had with others about his private life. The committee accepted his right to do so.[74]
    • Hill was the only person to publicly testify that Thomas had sexually harassed her.[75] Angela Wright, who worked under Thomas at the EEOC before he fired her,[76] decided not to testify.[77] She submitted a written statement alleging that Thomas had pressured her for a date and had made comments about the anatomy of women, but said she did not feel his behavior was intimidating, nor did she feel sexually harassed, though she allowed that "[s]ome other women might have."[78][79][80] Sukari Hardnett, a former Thomas assistant, wrote to the Senate committee that although Thomas had not harassed her, "If you were young, black, female and reasonably attractive, you knew full well you were being inspected and auditioned as a female."[81][82]
    • In addition to Hill and Thomas, the committee heard from several other witnesses over the course of three days, October 11''13, 1991.[64] A former colleague, Nancy Altman, who shared an office with Thomas at the Department of Education, testified that she heard virtually everything Thomas said over the course of two years, and never heard a sexist or offensive comment. Altman did not find it credible that Thomas could have engaged in the conduct Hill alleged without any of the dozens of women he worked with noticing it.[83] Reflecting the skepticism of some committee members, Senator Alan K. Simpson asked why Hill met, dined with, and spoke by phone with Thomas on various occasions after they no longer worked together.[84] In 2007, Thomas wrote My Grandfather's Son: A Memoir, in which he addressed Hill's allegations and the caustic confirmation hearing.[85]
    • Based on "evidence amassed by investigative journalists over... years", including new corroborative testimony, journalist Corey Robin wrote in a 2019 monograph, "it's since become clear that Thomas lied to the Judiciary Committee when he stated that he never sexually harassed Anita Hill" and that he had subjected her to sexually harassing comments.[87] Robin concurred that Thomas's description of the accusations as a "high-tech lynching" was an authentic reaction and reflected Thomas's sincere belief about the racial dimension of the Judiciary Committee's inquiries.
    • Senate votes Clarence Thomas being sworn in as a member of the U.S. Supreme Court by Justice
    • Byron White during an October 23, 1991, White House ceremony, as wife
    • Virginia Thomas looks on
    • On October 15, 1991, after the testimony, the Senate voted to confirm Thomas as an associate justice of the Supreme Court by a 52''48 vote.[64] In all, Thomas received the votes of 41 Republicans and 11 Democrats, while 46 Democrats and two Republicans voted to reject his nomination.[89]
    • The 99 days during which Thomas's nomination was pending in the Senate was the second-longest of the 16 nominees receiving a final vote since 1975, second only to Bork's of 108 days;[64] the vote was the narrowest margin for approval since 1881, when Stanley Matthews was confirmed 24''23.[90] Vice President Dan Quayle presided over the vote in his role as president of the Senate, but his tie-breaking vote was not needed for confirmation.[91][92]
    • Thomas received his commission on October 23 and took the prescribed constitutional and judicial oaths of office, becoming the Court's 106th justice. He was sworn in by Justice Byron White in a ceremony initially scheduled for October 21, but postponed due to the death of Chief Justice William Rehnquist's wife.[93][94]
    • Public perception Thomas is associated with the Court's conservative wing.[95] He has rarely given media interviews during his time on the Court. In 2007, he said, "One of the reasons I don't do media interviews is, in the past, the media often has its own script."[17] That same year, Thomas received a $1.5 million advance for his memoir, My Grandfather's Son, which became a bestseller.[96][97] He was the subject of the 2020 documentary film Created Equal: Clarence Thomas in his Own Words.
    • Political science scholar Corey Robin and Thomas biographer Scott Douglas Gerber have opined that critics such as Jeffrey Toobin have been unusually vitriolic toward Thomas.[98] Robin has compared the way "Thomas has been dismissed as an intellectual nonentity" to similar insinuations made about Thurgood Marshall, "the only other black Supreme Court justice in American history." Gerber likewise writes,
    • There are a number of explanations for this phenomenon. The first is grounded in race and ethnicity. We should not forget that Thurgood Marshall, Justice Thomas's predecessor on the Supreme Court, and the first African-American appointed, was also sharply criticized during his appointment process and in his early days on the Court. The fact that Justice Thomas is black has undoubtedly played a similar role in how he has been assessed, no matter how much we may hate to admit it.[98]
    • Other critics have outlined separate reasons, such as liberals' disappointment that Thomas has departed so much from Marshall's jurisprudence.[98] Additional causes for the harsh criticism may be the explosive nature of sexual misconduct allegations, the suspicion among some people that Thomas was not forthright during his confirmation hearings, and the belief that, ironically, Thomas's nomination was a kind of affirmative action akin to the programs that he has criticized as a judge.[98]
    • Thomas has said he has a preference for non-Ivy League clerks, although he has hired Ivy League graduates.[100] Schools from which Thomas has hired include Notre Dame Law School,[101] Creighton, Rutgers, George Mason, and the University of Utah.[102]
    • In 2006, Thomas had a 48% favorable, 36% unfavorable rating, according to Rasmussen Reports.[103][104] A YouGov poll conducted in March 2021 found that Thomas was the most popular sitting Supreme Court justice among Republicans, with a 59% approval rating in that category.[105][106]
    • Thomas's influence, particularly among conservatives, was perceived to have significantly increased during Donald Trump's presidency,[107][108] and Trump appointed many of his former clerks to political positions and judgeships.[109][110][111] As the Supreme Court became more conservative, Thomas and his legal views became more influential among the Court.[112][113][114]
    • Judicial philosophy Conservatism and originalism Thomas is often described as an originalist and as a textualist.[115][116] He is also often described as the Court's most conservative member,[24][118] though others gave Justice Antonin Scalia that designation while they served on the Court together.[119][120][121] Scalia and Thomas had similar but not identical judicial philosophies, and pundits speculate about the degree to which Scalia found some of Thomas's views implausible.[122][123]
    • Thomas's jurisprudence has also been compared to that of Justice Hugo Black, who "resisted the tendency to create social policy out of 'whole cloth.'"[124] According to the same critic, Thomas generally declines to engage in judicial lawmaking, viewing the Court's constitutional role as the interpretation of law, rather than making law.[124]
    • Some critics downplay the significance of originalism in Thomas's jurisprudence and claim Thomas applies originalism in his decisions inconsistently.[126][127][128] Law professor Jim Ryan and former litigator Doug Kendall have argued that Thomas "will use originalism where it provides support for a politically conservative result" but ignores originalism when "history provides no support" for a conservative ruling.[126] Others have argued that Thomas employs a "pluralistic approach to originalism" in which he relies on a mix of original intent, understanding, and public meaning to guide his judgments.[128] Such critics observe that Thomas's originalism most often seems inconsistent or pluralistic when court decisions intersect issues related to race.[127][128] Robin, while calling originalism "at best episodic" in Thomas's rulings, claims it still plays a significant role in how Thomas envisions the Constitution and "functions as an organizing" narrative for his interpretation.
    • Voting alignment Thomas voted most frequently with Scalia and Chief Justice William Rehnquist in his early years on the Court.[95] On average, from 1994 to 2004, Scalia and Thomas had an 87% voting alignment, the highest on the court, followed by Ruth Bader Ginsburg and David Souter's (86%).[129] Scalia's and Thomas's agreement rate peaked in 1996, at 98%.[129] By 2004, other pairs of justices were more closely aligned than Scalia and Thomas.[130]
    • The conventional wisdom that Thomas's votes followed Scalia's is reflected by Linda Greenhouse's observation that Thomas voted with Scalia 91% of the time during October Term 2006, and with Justice John Paul Stevens the least, 36% of the time.[131] Jan Crawford asserted that to some extent, this is also true in the other direction: Scalia often joins Thomas instead of Thomas joining Scalia. Statistics compiled annually by Tom Goldstein of SCOTUSblog demonstrate that Greenhouse's count is methodology-specific, counting non-unanimous cases where Scalia and Thomas voted for the same litigant, regardless of whether they got there by the same reasoning.[133] Goldstein's statistics show that the two agreed in full only 74% of the time, and that the frequency of their agreement is not as outstanding as often implied in pieces aimed at lay audiences. For example, in that same term, Souter and Ginsburg voted together 81% of the time by the method of counting that yields a 74% agreement between Thomas and Scalia. By the metric that produces the 91% Scalia/Thomas figure, Ginsburg and Breyer agreed 90% of the time. Roberts and Alito agreed 94% of the time.[134] Robin has called the idea that Thomas followed Scalia's votes a debunked myth.
    • Crawford wrote in her book on the Supreme Court that Thomas's forceful views moved "moderates like Sandra Day O'Connor further to the left" but frequently attracted votes from Rehnquist and Scalia. Mark Tushnet and Jeffrey Toobin opined that Rehnquist rarely assigned important majority opinions to Thomas because Thomas's views made it difficult for him to persuade a majority to join him.[137]
    • Number of opinions and frequency in dissent From when he joined the Court in 1991 through the end of the 2019 term, Thomas had written 693 opinions, not including opinions relating to orders or the "shadow docket". These 693 opinions consist of 223 majority opinions, 226 concurrences, 214 dissents, and 30 "split" opinions. Thomas has written the majority opinion in a 5''4 case 40 times, and the dissenting opinion in an 8''1 case 30 times.[138]
    • From 1994 to 2004, on average, Thomas was the third-most-frequent dissenter on the Court, behind Stevens and Scalia.[129] Four other justices dissented as frequently in 2007.[139] Three other justices dissented as frequently in 2006.[140] One other justice dissented as frequently in 2005.[141]
    • Stare decisis Thomas spoke favorably about stare decisis'--the principle that the Court is bound by its preceding decisions'--during his confirmation hearings, saying, "stare decisis provides continuity to our system, it provides predictability, and in our process of case-by-case decision making, I think it is a very important and critical concept."[142] But according to Scalia, Thomas "doesn't believe in stare decisis, period."[142] This assessment is consistent with Thomas's record on the bench: factoring in length of tenure, Thomas urged overruling and joined in overruling precedents more often than any other justice on the Rehnquist Court.[143]
    • Also according to Scalia, Thomas is more willing to overrule constitutional cases than he was: "If a constitutional line of authority is wrong, he would say let's get it right. I wouldn't do that."[144] Law professor Michael Gerhardt has said that Scalia's characterization of Thomas may be incorrect, given that Thomas has supported leaving a broad spectrum of constitutional decisions intact.[145] Thomas's belief in originalism is strong; he has said, "When faced with a clash of constitutional principle and a line of unreasoned cases wholly divorced from the text, history, and structure of our founding document, we should not hesitate to resolve the tension in favor of the Constitution's original meaning." Thomas believes that an erroneous decision can and should be overturned, no matter how old it is.
    • In 2005, while assistant professor of law at Notre Dame Law School, Amy Coney Barrett wrote that Thomas supports statutory stare decisis. Her examples included his concurring opinion in Fogerty v. Fantasy.[147]
    • In Franchise Tax Board of California v. Hyatt (2019), Thomas wrote the 5''4 decision overruling Nevada v. Hall (1979), which said states could be sued in courts of other states. He wrote that stare decisis "is not an inexorable command." Thomas explicitly disavowed the concept of reliance interests as justification for adhering to precedent. In dissent from Franchise Tax Bd. of Cal., Justice Stephen Breyer asked what other decisions might eventually be overruled, and suggested Roe v. Wade might be among them. Breyer stated that it is best to leave precedents alone unless they are widely seen as erroneous or become impractical.[148][149]
    • In Flowers v. Mississippi (2019), a 7''2 decision, Thomas dissented from the ruling overturning Mississippi resident Curtis Flowers's death sentence, joined only by Neil Gorsuch, and suggested Batson v. Kentucky, which forbids prosecutors from using race as a factor in making peremptory challenges in jury selection, was wrongly decided and should be overruled. Gorsuch did not join the section of Thomas's opinion suggesting Batson should be overruled.[150]
    • Commerce Clause Thomas has consistently supported narrowing the court's interpretation of the Constitution's Interstate Commerce Clause (often simply called the "Commerce Clause") to limit federal power, though he has broadly interpreted states' sovereign immunity from lawsuits under the Clause.[151]
    • In United States v. Lopez and United States v. Morrison, the Court held that Congress lacked power under the Commerce Clause to regulate non-commercial activities. In these cases, Thomas wrote a separate concurring opinion arguing for the Commerce Clause's original meaning. Subsequently, in Gonzales v. Raich, the Court interpreted the Commerce Clause combined with the Necessary and Proper Clause as empowering the federal government to arrest, prosecute, and imprison patients who used marijuana grown at home for medicinal purposes, even where that is legal under state law. Thomas dissented in Raich, again arguing for the Commerce Clause's original meaning.
    • Thomas and Scalia rejected the notion of a Dormant Commerce Clause, also known as the "Negative Commerce Clause". That doctrine bars state commercial regulation even if Congress has not yet acted on the matter.[152]
    • In Lopez, Thomas expressed his view that federal regulation of manufacturing and agriculture is unconstitutional; he sees both as outside the Commerce Clause's scope.[153] He believes federal legislators have overextended the Clause, while some of his critics argue that his position on congressional authority would invalidate much of the federal government's contemporary work. According to Thomas, it is not the Court's job to update the Constitution. Proponents of broad national power such as Professor Michael Dorf deny that they are trying to do so; instead, they say they are merely addressing a set of economic facts that did not exist when the Constitution was framed.[155]
    • Executive power, federalism, and federal statutes Executive power Thomas has argued that the executive branch has broad authority under the Constitution and federal statutes. In Hamdi v. Rumsfeld, he was the only justice to agree with the Fourth Circuit that Congress had the power to authorize the president's detention of U.S. citizens who are enemy combatants. Thomas granted the federal government the "strongest presumptions" and said "due process requires nothing more than a good-faith executive determination" to justify the imprisonment of a U.S. citizen.[156]
    • Thomas was one of three justices to dissent in Hamdan v. Rumsfeld, which held that the military commissions the Bush administration created to try detainees at Guantanamo Bay required explicit congressional authorization and that the commissions conflicted with both the Uniform Code of Military Justice (UCMJ) and "at least" Common Article Three of the Geneva Convention.[157] Thomas argued that Hamdan was an illegal combatant and therefore not protected by the Geneva Convention, and agreed with Scalia that the Court was "patently erroneous" in its declaration of jurisdiction in this case.
    • In the Ninth Circuit case East Bay Sanctuary Covenant v. Trump (2018), which placed an injunction on the Trump administration's asylum policy, Thomas dissented from a denial of stay application. The Ninth Circuit imposed an injunction on the Trump administration's policy granting asylum only to refugees entering from a designated port of entry, ruling that it violated the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1952. Ninth Circuit Judge Jay Bybee's majority opinion concluded that denial of the ability to apply for asylum regardless of entry point is "the hollowest of rights that an alien must be allowed to apply for asylum regardless of whether she arrived through a port of entry if another rule makes her categorically ineligible for asylum based on precisely that fact." Gorsuch, Samuel Alito, and Brett Kavanaugh also dissented in the decision to deny a stay to the Ninth Circuit's injunction.[158][159]
    • Federalism Federalism was a central part of the Rehnquist Court's constitutional agenda.[160] Thomas consistently voted for outcomes that promoted state-governmental authority in cases involving federalism-based limits on Congress's enumerated powers.[160] According to law professor Ann Althouse, the court has yet to move toward "the broader, more principled version of federalism propounded by Justice Thomas."[161]
    • In Foucha v. Louisiana, Thomas dissented from the majority opinion that required the removal from a mental institution of a prisoner who had become sane. The court held that a Louisiana statute violated the Due Process Clause "because it allows an insanity acquittee to be committed to a mental institution until he is able to demonstrate that he is not dangerous to himself and others, even though he does not suffer from any mental illness."[163] Dissenting, Thomas cast the issue as a matter of federalism. "Removing sane insanity acquittees from mental institutions may make eminent sense as a policy matter", he wrote, "but the Due Process Clause does not require the States to conform to the policy preferences of federal judges."[163] In United States v. Comstock, Thomas's dissent argued for the release of a former federal prisoner from civil commitment, again on the basis of federalism.[164] In U.S. Term Limits, Inc. v. Thornton, he wrote a dissent defending term limits on federal House and Senate candidates as a valid exercise of state legislative power.[165]
    • Federal statutes As of 2007, Thomas was the justice most willing to exercise judicial review of federal statutes, but among the least likely to overturn state statutes.[166] According to a New York Times editorial, "from 1994 to 2005 ... Justice Thomas voted to overturn federal laws in 34 cases and Justice Scalia in 31, compared with just 15 for Justice Stephen Breyer."[167]
    • In Northwest Austin Municipal Utility District No. 1 v. Holder, Thomas was the sole dissenter, voting to throw out Section Five of the 1965 Voting Rights Act. Section Five requires states with a history of racial voter discrimination'--mostly states from the old South'--to get Justice Department clearance when revising election procedures. Congress had reauthorized Section Five in 2006 for another 25 years, but Thomas said the law was no longer necessary, pointing out that the rate of black voting in seven Section Five states was higher than the national average. He wrote, "the violence, intimidation and subterfuge that led Congress to pass Section 5 and this court to uphold it no longer remains."[168] He took this position again in Shelby County v. Holder, voting with the majority and concurring with the reasoning that struck down Section Five.[169]
    • Bill of Rights First Amendment By 2002, Thomas was the justice second-most likely to uphold free speech claims (tied with David Souter).[170] He has voted in favor of First Amendment claims in cases involving a wide variety of issues, including pornography, campaign contributions, political leafleting, religious speech, and commercial speech.[citation needed ]
    • With respect to the Establishment Clause, Thomas espouses accommodationism.[172]
    • Thomas has made public his belief that all limits on federal campaign contributions are unconstitutional and should be struck down.[173] He voted with the majority in Citizens United v. FEC.[174]
    • On occasion, Thomas has disagreed with free speech claimants. For example, he dissented in Virginia v. Black, a case that struck down part of a Virginia statute that banned cross burning. Concurring in Morse v. Frederick, he argued that the free speech rights of students in public schools are limited.[176] In Mahanoy Area School District v. B.L. in which an off-campus high school student was punished by her school for sending a profane message on social media regarding her school, softball team, and cheer team, Thomas was the lone dissenter, siding with the school. He criticized the majority for relying on "vague considerations" and wrote that historically schools could discipline students in situations similar to the case.[177] In Walker v. Texas Division, Sons of Confederate Veterans, he joined the majority opinion that Texas's decision to deny a request for a Confederate Battle Flag specialty license plate was constitutional.[178]
    • Thomas authored the decision in Ashcroft v. ACLU, which held that the Child Online Protection Act might be constitutional. The government was enjoined from enforcing it, pending further proceedings in the lower courts.[179] Thomas wrote concurrences in McIntyre v. Ohio Elections Commission, 514 U.S. 334 (1995)[180] and United States v. Playboy Entertainment Group (2000).
    • In Elk Grove Unified School District v. Newdow, Thomas wrote, "It may well be the case that anything that would violate the incorporated Establishment Clause would actually violate the Free Exercise Clause, further calling into doubt the utility of incorporating the Establishment Clause",[181] and in Cutter v. Wilkinson, he wrote, "I note, however, that a state law that would violate the incorporated Establishment Clause might also violate the Free Exercise Clause."[182]
    • Thomas has said "it makes little sense to incorporate the Establishment Clause" vis- -vis the states by the Fourteenth Amendment.[183]
    • Second Amendment Thomas agreed with the judgment in McDonald v. Chicago (2010) that the right to keep and bear arms is applicable to state and local governments, but wrote a separate concurrence finding that an individual's right to bear arms is fundamental as a privilege of American citizenship under the Privileges or Immunities Clause rather than as a fundamental right under the due process clause. The four justices in the plurality opinion specifically rejected incorporation under the privileges or immunities clause, "declin[ing] to disturb" the holding in the Slaughter-House Cases, which, according to the plurality, had held that the clause applied only to federal matters.[185][186]
    • Since 2010, Thomas has dissented from denial of certiorari in several Second Amendment cases. He would have voted to grant certiorari in Friedman v. City of Highland Park (2015), which upheld bans on certain semi-automatic rifles; Jackson v. San Francisco (2014), which upheld trigger lock ordinances similar to those struck down in Heller; Peruta v. San Diego County (2016), which upheld restrictive concealed carry licensing in California; and Silvester v. Becerra (2017), which upheld waiting periods for firearm purchasers who have already passed background checks and already own firearms. He was joined by Scalia in the first two cases, and by Gorsuch in Peruta.[187][188][189][190]
    • Thomas dissented from the denial of an application for a stay presented to Chief Justice John Roberts in the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit case Guedes v. Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms, and Explosives (2019), a case challenging the Trump administration's ban on bump stocks. Only Thomas and Gorsuch publicly dissented.[191]
    • Fourth Amendment In cases regarding the Fourth Amendment, which prohibits unreasonable searches and seizures, Thomas often favors police over defendants. For example, his opinion for the Court in Board of Education v. Earls upheld drug testing for students involved in extracurricular activities, and he wrote again for the Court in Samson v. California, permitting random searches on parolees. He dissented in Georgia v. Randolph, which prohibited warrantless searches that one resident approves and the other opposes, arguing that the Court's decision in Coolidge v. New Hampshire controlled the case. In Indianapolis v. Edmond, Thomas described the Court's extant case law as having held that "suspicionless roadblock seizures are constitutionally permissible if conducted according to a plan that limits the discretion of the officers conducting the stops." He expressed doubt that those cases were decided correctly, but concluded that since the litigants in the case at bar had not briefed or argued that the earlier cases be overruled, he believed that the Court should assume their validity and rule accordingly.[192] Thomas was in the majority in Kyllo v. United States, which held that the use of thermal imaging technology to probe a suspect's home without a warrant violated the Fourth Amendment.
    • In cases involving schools, Thomas has advocated greater respect for the doctrine of in loco parentis, which he defines as "parents delegat[ing] to teachers their authority to discipline and maintain order."[194] His dissent in Safford Unified School District v. Redding illustrates his application of this postulate in the Fourth Amendment context. School officials in the Safford case had a reasonable suspicion that 13-year-old Savana Redding was illegally distributing prescription-only drugs. All the justices concurred that it was therefore reasonable for the school officials to search Redding, and the main issue before the Court was only whether the search went too far by becoming a strip search or the like.[194] All the justices except Thomas concluded that the search violated the Fourth Amendment. The majority required a finding of danger or reason to believe drugs were hidden in a student's underwear in order to justify a strip search. Thomas wrote, "It is a mistake for judges to assume the responsibility for deciding which school rules are important enough to allow for invasive searches and which rules are not"[195] and "reasonable suspicion that Redding was in possession of drugs in violation of these policies, therefore, justified a search extending to any area where small pills could be concealed." He added, "[t]here can be no doubt that a parent would have had the authority to conduct the search."[194]
    • Sixth Amendment In Doggett v. United States, the defendant had technically been a fugitive from the time he was indicted in 1980 until his arrest in 1988. The Court held that the delay between indictment and arrest violated Doggett's Sixth Amendment right to a speedy trial, finding that the government had been negligent in pursuing him and that he was unaware of the indictment.[196] Thomas dissented, arguing that the Speedy Trial Clause's purpose was to prevent "'undue and oppressive incarceration' and the 'anxiety and concern accompanying public accusation'" and that the case implicated neither.[196] He cast the case instead as "present[ing] the question [of] whether, independent of these core concerns, the Speedy Trial Clause protects an accused from two additional harms: (1) prejudice to his ability to defend himself caused by the passage of time; and (2) disruption of his life years after the alleged commission of his crime." Thomas dissented from the court's decision to, as he saw it, answer the former in the affirmative.[196] He wrote that dismissing the conviction "invites the Nation's judges to indulge in ad hoc and result-driven second guessing of the government's investigatory efforts. Our Constitution neither contemplates nor tolerates such a role."
    • In Garza v. Idaho, Thomas and Gorsuch, in dissent, suggested that Gideon v. Wainwright (1963), which required that indigent criminal defendants be provided counsel, was wrongly decided and should be overruled.[198]
    • Eighth Amendment Thomas was among the dissenters in Atkins v. Virginia and Roper v. Simmons, which held that the Eighth Amendment prohibits the application of the death penalty to certain classes of persons. In Kansas v. Marsh, his opinion for the Court indicated a belief that the Constitution affords states broad procedural latitude in imposing the death penalty, provided they remain within the limits of Furman v. Georgia and Gregg v. Georgia, the 1976 case in which the Court reversed its 1972 ban on death sentences if states followed procedural guidelines.[citation needed ]
    • In Hudson v. McMillian, a prisoner had been beaten, sustaining a cracked lip, broken dental plate, loosened teeth, cuts, and bruises. Although these were not "serious injuries", the Court believed, it held that "the use of excessive physical force against a prisoner may constitute cruel and unusual punishment even though the inmate does not suffer serious injury."[199] Dissenting, Thomas wrote, "a use of force that causes only insignificant harm to a prisoner may be immoral, it may be tortious, it may be criminal, and it may even be remediable under other provisions of the Federal Constitution, but it is not 'cruel and unusual punishment'. In concluding to the contrary, the Court today goes far beyond our precedents."[199] Thomas's vote'--in one of his first cases after joining the Court'--was an early example of his willingness to be the sole dissenter (Scalia later joined the opinion). His opinion was criticized by the seven-member majority, which wrote that, by comparing physical assault to other prison conditions such as poor prison food, it ignored "the concepts of dignity, civilized standards, humanity, and decency that animate the Eighth Amendment".[199] According to historian David Garrow, Thomas's dissent in Hudson was a "classic call for federal judicial restraint, reminiscent of views that were held by Felix Frankfurter and John M. Harlan II a generation earlier, but editorial criticism rained down on him".[201] Thomas later responded to the accusation "that I supported the beating of prisoners in that case. Well, one must either be illiterate or fraught with malice to reach that conclusion ... no honest reading can reach such a conclusion."[201]
    • In United States v. Bajakajian, Thomas joined with the Court's liberal bloc to write the majority opinion declaring a fine unconstitutional under the Eighth Amendment. The fine was for failing to declare more than $300,000 in a suitcase on an international flight. Under a federal statute, 18 U.S.C. § 982(a)(1), the passenger would have had to forfeit the entire amount. Thomas noted that the case required a distinction to be made between civil forfeiture and a fine exacted with the intention of punishing the respondent. He found that the forfeiture in this case was clearly intended as a punishment at least in part, was "grossly disproportional", and violated the Excessive Fines Clause.[202]
    • Thomas has written that the "Cruel and Unusual Punishment" clause "contains no proportionality principle", meaning that the question whether a sentence should be rejected as "cruel and unusual" depends only on the sentence itself, not on what crime is being punished.[203] He was concurring with the Court's decision to reject a request for review from a petitioner who had been sentenced to 25 years to life in prison under California's "Three-Strikes" law for stealing some golf clubs because the combined value of the clubs made the theft a felony and he had two previous felonies in his criminal record.
    • Equal protection and affirmative action Thomas believes that the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment forbids consideration of race, such as race-based affirmative action or preferential treatment. In Adarand Constructors v. Pe±a, for example, he wrote, "there is a 'moral [and] constitutional equivalence' between laws designed to subjugate a race and those that distribute benefits on the basis of race in order to foster some current notion of equality. Government cannot make us equal; it can only recognize, respect, and protect us as equal before the law. That [affirmative action] programs may have been motivated, in part, by good intentions cannot provide refuge from the principle that under our Constitution, the government may not make distinctions on the basis of race."[204]
    • In Gratz v. Bollinger, Thomas wrote, "a State's use of racial discrimination in higher education admissions is categorically prohibited by the Equal Protection Clause."[205] In Parents Involved in Community Schools v. Seattle School District No. 1, Thomas joined the opinion of Chief Justice Roberts, who wrote that "[t]he way to stop discrimination on the basis of race is to stop discriminating on the basis of race."[206] Concurring, Thomas wrote, "if our history has taught us anything, it has taught us to beware of elites bearing racial theories", and charged that the dissent carried "similarities" to the arguments of the segregationist litigants in Brown v. Board of Education.[206]
    • In Grutter v. Bollinger, he approvingly quoted Justice Harlan's Plessy v. Ferguson dissent: "Our Constitution is color-blind, and neither knows nor tolerates classes among citizens."[207] In a concurrence in Missouri v. Jenkins (1995), he wrote that the Missouri District Court "has read our cases to support the theory that black students suffer an unspecified psychological harm from segregation that retards their mental and educational development. This approach not only relies upon questionable social science research rather than constitutional principle, but it also rests on an assumption of black inferiority."[208]
    • Abortion and family planning Thomas has contended that the Constitution does not address abortion.[209] In Planned Parenthood v. Casey (1992), the Court reaffirmed Roe v. Wade. Thomas and Justice Byron White joined the dissenting opinions of Rehnquist and Scalia. Rehnquist wrote, "[w]e believe Roe was wrongly decided, and that it can and should be overruled consistently with our traditional approach to stare decisis in constitutional cases."[210] Scalia's opinion concluded that the right to obtain an abortion is not "a liberty protected by the Constitution of the United States."[210] "[T]he Constitution says absolutely nothing about it," Scalia wrote, "and [ ] the longstanding traditions of American society have permitted it to be legally proscribed."[210]
    • In Stenberg v. Carhart (2000), the Court struck down a state ban on partial-birth abortion, concluding that it failed the "undue burden" test established in Casey. Thomas dissented, writing, "Although a State may permit abortion, nothing in the Constitution dictates that a State must do so."[211] He went on to criticize the reasoning of the Casey and Stenberg majorities: "The majority's insistence on a health exception is a fig leaf barely covering its hostility to any abortion regulation by the States'--a hostility that Casey purported to reject."
    • In Gonzales v. Carhart (2007), the Court rejected a facial challenge to a federal ban on partial-birth abortion.[212] Concurring, Thomas asserted that the court's abortion jurisprudence had no basis in the Constitution, but that the court had accurately applied that jurisprudence in rejecting the challenge.[212] He added that the Court was not deciding the question of whether Congress had the power to outlaw partial-birth abortions: "[W]hether the Act constitutes a permissible exercise of Congress's power under the Commerce Clause is not before the Court [in this case] ... the parties did not raise or brief that issue; it is outside the question presented; and the lower courts did not address it."[212]
    • In December 2018, Thomas dissented when the Supreme Court voted not to hear cases brought by the states of Louisiana and Kansas to deny Medicaid funding to Planned Parenthood.[213] Alito and Gorsuch joined Thomas's dissent, arguing that the Court was "abdicating its judicial duty."[214]
    • In February 2019, Thomas joined three of the Court's other conservative justices in voting to reject a stay to temporarily block a law restricting abortion in Louisiana.[215] The law that the court temporarily stayed, in a 5''4 decision, would have required that doctors performing abortions have admitting privileges in a hospital.[216]
    • In Box v. Planned Parenthood of Indiana and Kentucky, Inc. (2019), a per curiam decision upholding the provision of Indiana's abortion restriction regarding fetal remains disposal on rational basis scrutiny and upholding the lower court rulings striking down the provision banning race, sex, and disability, Thomas wrote a concurring opinion comparing abortion and birth control to eugenics, which was practiced in the United States in the early 20th century and by the Nazi government in Germany in the 1930s and 1940s, and comparing Box to Buck v. Bell (1927), which upheld a forced sterilization law regarding people with mental disabilities. In his opinion, Thomas quoted Margaret Sanger's support for contraception as a form of personal reproductive control that she considered superior to "the horrors of abortion and infanticide" (Sanger's words, quoted by Thomas).[217] His opinion referred several times to historian/journalist Adam Cohen's book Imbeciles: The Supreme Court, American Eugenics, and the Sterilization of Carrie Buck; shortly afterward, Cohen published a sharply worded criticism saying that Thomas had misinterpreted his book and misunderstood the history of the eugenics movement.[218] In Box, only Thomas, Sonia Sotomayor, and Ruth Bader Ginsburg publicly registered their votes. Ginsburg and Sotomayor concurred in part and dissented in part, stating they would have upheld the lower court decision on striking down the race, sex, and disability ban as well as the lower court decision striking down the fetal remains disposal provision.[217]
    • LGBTQ rights In Romer v. Evans (1996), Thomas joined Scalia's dissenting opinion arguing that Amendment Two to the Colorado State Constitution did not violate the Equal Protection Clause. The Colorado amendment forbade any judicial, legislative, or executive action designed to protect persons from discrimination based on "homosexual, lesbian, or bisexual orientation, conduct, practices or relationships."[219]
    • In Lawrence v. Texas (2003), Thomas issued a one-page dissent in which he called the Texas statute prohibiting sodomy "uncommonly silly", a phrase originally used by Justice Stewart. He then said that if he were a member of the Texas legislature he would vote to repeal the law, as it was not a worthwhile use of "law enforcement resources" to police private sexual behavior. But Thomas opined that the Constitution does not contain a right to privacy and therefore did not vote to strike the statute down. He saw the issue as a matter for states to decide for themselves.[220]
    • In Bostock v. Clayton County, Georgia (2020), Thomas joined Alito and Kavanaugh in dissenting from the decision that Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 protects employees against discrimination based on sexual orientation or gender identity. (Thomas and Alito wrote a dissent together, and Kavanaugh wrote separately.) The 6''3 ruling's majority consisted of two Republican-appointed justices, Roberts and Gorsuch, along with four Democratic-appointed justices: Ginsburg, Breyer, Sotomayor, and Elena Kagan.[221]
    • In October 2020, Thomas joined the other justices in denying an appeal from Kim Davis, a county clerk who refused to give marriage licenses to same-sex couples, but wrote a separate opinion reiterating his dissent from Obergefell v. Hodges and expressing his belief that it was wrongly decided.[222][223][224] In July 2021, he was one of three justices, with Gorsuch and Alito, who voted to hear an appeal from a Washington State florist who had refused service to a same-gender couple based on her religious beliefs against same-gender marriage.[225][226][227] In November 2021, Thomas dissented from the majority of justices in a 6-3 vote to reject an appeal from Mercy San Juan Medical Center, a hospital affiliated with the Roman Catholic Church, which had sought to deny a hysterectomy to a transgender patient on religious grounds.[228] Alito and Gorsuch also dissented, and the vote to reject the appeal left in place a lower court ruling in the patient's favor.[229][230]
    • Approach to oral arguments Thomas is well known for his reticence during oral argument. After asking a question during a death penalty case on February 22, 2006, Thomas did not ask another question from the bench for more than 10 years, until February 29, 2016, about a response to a question regarding whether persons convicted of misdemeanor domestic violence should be barred permanently from firearm possession.[231] He also had a nearly seven-year streak of not speaking at all during oral arguments, finally breaking that silence on January 14, 2013, when he, a Yale Law graduate, was understood to have joked either that a law degree from Yale or from Harvard may be proof of incompetence.[232][233] Thomas took a more active role in questioning when the Supreme Court shifted to holding teleconferenced arguments in May 2020 due to the COVID-19 pandemic;[234][235][236][237] before that, he spoke in 32 of the roughly 2,400 arguments since 1991.[238]
    • Thomas has given many reasons for his silence, including self-consciousness about how he speaks, a preference for listening to those arguing the case, and difficulty getting in a word.[232] His speaking and listening habits may have been influenced by his Gullah upbringing, during which his English was relatively unpolished.[13][21][239]
    • In 2000, Thomas told a group of high school students, "if you wait long enough, someone will ask your question."[240][241] Although he rarely speaks from the bench, he has acknowledged that sometimes, during oral arguments, he will pass notes to Breyer, who then asks questions on Thomas's behalf.[242]
    • In November 2007, Thomas told an audience at Hillsdale College, "My colleagues should shut up!" He later explained, "I don't think that for judging, and for what we are doing, all those questions are necessary."[243] According to Amber Porter of ABC News, one of the most notable instances in which Thomas asked a question was in 2002 during oral arguments for Virginia v. Black, when he expressed concern to Michael Dreeben, who had been speaking on behalf of the U.S. Department of Justice, that he was "actually understating the symbolism ... and the effect of ... the burning cross" and its use as a symbol of the "reign of terror" of "100 years of lynching and activity in the South by the Knights of Camellia ... and the Ku Klux Klan".[244]
    • Thomas is not the first quiet justice. In the 1970s and 1980s, Justices William J. Brennan, Thurgood Marshall, and Harry Blackmun generally were quiet.[245] But Thomas's silence stood out in the 1990s as the other eight justices engaged in active questioning. The New York Times's Supreme Court correspondent Adam Liptak has called it a "pity" that Thomas does not ask questions, saying that he has a "distinctive legal philosophy and a background entirely different from that of any other justice" and that those he asked in the 2001 and 2002 terms were "mostly good questions, brisk and pointed."[232] Conversely, Jeffrey Toobin, writing in The New Yorker, called Thomas's silence "disgraceful" behavior that had "gone from curious to bizarre to downright embarrassing, for himself and for the institution he represents."[247]
    • In a 2017 paper in the Northwestern University Law Review, RonNell Andersen Jones and Aaron L. Nielson argued that while asking few questions, "in many ways, [Thomas] is a model questioner", exhibiting habits such as following up on colleagues' inquiries and showing respect to attorneys.[248] Later in 2020, Jones and Nielson posited that Thomas asked questions more frequently when the Supreme Court held oral arguments by teleconferencing due to the COVID-19 pandemic because he found the new format more palatable.[249] In the teleconferencing format, justices took turns answering questions and spoke when called on by Chief Justice Roberts. Thomas "has questions that he thinks are valuable", Jones and Nielson concluded, but dislikes the "free-for-all" of typical questioning during oral arguments.[249]
    • Personal life In 1971, Thomas married his college sweetheart, Kathy Grace Ambush. They had one child, Jamal Adeen. They separated in 1981 and divorced in 1984.[33][250] In 1987, Thomas married Virginia Lamp, a lobbyist and aide to Republican Congressman Dick Armey. In 1997, they took in Thomas's then six-year-old great nephew, Mark Martin Jr.,[252] who had lived with his mother in Savannah public housing.
    • Virginia "Ginni" Thomas remained active in conservative politics, serving as a consultant to the Heritage Foundation, and as founder and president of Liberty Central.[254] In 2011, she stepped down from Liberty Central to open a conservative lobbying firm, touting her "experience and connections", meeting with newly elected Republican representatives and calling herself an "ambassador to the tea party".[255][256] Also in 2011, 74 Democratic members of the House of Representatives wrote that Justice Thomas should recuse himself on cases regarding the Affordable Care Act due to "appearance of a conflict of interest" based on his wife's work.[257] The Washington Post reported in February 2021 that she apologized to a group of Thomas's former clerks on the email listserv "Thomas Clerk World" for her role in contributing to a rift relating to "pro-Trump postings and former Thomas clerk John Eastman, who spoke at the rally and represented Trump in some of his failed lawsuits filed to overturn the election results."[258]
    • Clarence Thomas was reconciled to the Catholic Church in the mid-1990s.[259] In his autobiography, he criticized the church for failing to grapple with racism in the 1960s during the civil rights movement, saying it was not so "adamant about ending racism then as it is about ending abortion now".[96] As of 2021, Thomas is one of 14 practicing Catholic justices in the Court's history, of 114 justices total, and one of six currently serving (along with Alito, Kavanaugh, Roberts, Sotomayor and Amy Coney Barrett).[260]
    • In January 2011, the liberal advocacy group Common Cause reported that between 2003 and 2007 Thomas failed to disclose $686,589 in income his wife earned from the Heritage Foundation, instead reporting "none" where "spousal noninvestment income" would be reported on his Supreme Court financial disclosure forms.[261] The next week, Thomas said the disclosure of his wife's income had been "inadvertently omitted due to a misunderstanding of the filing instructions".[262] He amended reports going back to 1989.[263]
    • In 2016, Moira Smith, a lawyer, claimed that Thomas groped her at a dinner party in 1999, when she was a Truman Foundation scholar. Thomas called the allegation "preposterous".[264][265]
    • Since 1999, Thomas and his wife have traveled across the U.S. in a motorcoach between Court terms.[266][267]
    • Writings Thomas, Clarence (2007). My Grandfather's Son: A Memoir. Harper. ISBN 978-0-06-056555-8. Thomas, Clarence (2000). "Why Federalism Matters (Dwight D. Opperman Lecture, Drake University Law School, September 24, 1999)" (PDF) . Drake Law Review. 48: 231''238. Thomas, Clarence (1999). "Personal Responsibility" (PDF) . Regent University Law Review. 12: 317''327. Thomas, Clarence (1998). Character. Washington, DC: Heritage Foundation. Archived from the original on August 16, 2000. Thomas, Clarance (Autumn 1994). "Punishment and Personhood". City Journal. Archived from the original on October 31, 2020. Thomas, Clarence (1989). "The Higher Law Background of the Privileges Or Immunities Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment". Harvard Journal of Law and Public Policy. 12: 63. Thomas, Clarence (1987). "Affirmative Action Goals and Timetables: Too Tough? Not Tough Enough!". Yale Law & Policy Review. 5 (2): 402''411. JSTOR 40239250. Thomas, Clarence (1987). "Toward a Plain Reading of the Constitution: The Declaration of Independence in Constitutional Interpretation. An Afro-American Perspective". Howard Law Journal. 30: 983''996. Thomas, Clarence (1987). "Why Black Americans Should Look to Conservative Policies". The Heritage Lectures. Washington, DC: Heritage Foundation. ISSN 0272-1155. See also List of justices of the Supreme Court of the United StatesList of law clerks of the Supreme Court of the United StatesList of United States Supreme Court justices by time in officeUnited States Supreme Court cases during the Rehnquist CourtUnited States Supreme Court cases during the Roberts CourtBlack conservatism in the United StatesReferences ^ "Roll Call Vote 102nd Congress - 1st Session". Senate.gov. October 15, 1991. Archived from the original on April 7, 2018 . Retrieved May 19, 2020 . ^ Stolberg, Sheryl Gay (June 27, 2012). "An Older, More Conservative Court". The New York Times. Archived from the original on July 1, 2012 . Retrieved December 11, 2012 . ^ Totenberg, Nina (October 11, 2011). "Clarence Thomas' Influence On The Supreme Court". NPR. Archived from the original on March 23, 2013 . Retrieved December 11, 2012 . ^ Toobin, Jeffrey (August 29, 2011). "Partners". The New Yorker. Archived from the original on November 20, 2012 . Retrieved December 11, 2012 . ^ Thomson-DeVeaux, Amelia (July 16, 2020). "Roberts Is The New Swing Justice. That Doesn't Mean He's Becoming More Liberal". FiveThirtyEight . Retrieved January 7, 2022 . ^ "How Kavanaugh Would Change The Court". Data For Progress . Retrieved January 7, 2022 . ^ Bailey, Michael A. (2013). "Is Today's Court the Most Conservative in Sixty Years? Challenges and Opportunities in Measuring Judicial Preferences". The Journal of Politics. 75 (3): 821''834. doi:10.1017/S0022381613000443. ISSN 0022-3816. ^ Bailey, Michael. "Bridge Ideal Points". Michael A. Bailey . 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City of Highland Park" (PDF) . Archived (PDF) from the original on June 3, 2020 . Retrieved May 18, 2020 . ^ "Jackson v. San Francisco" (PDF) . Archived (PDF) from the original on March 2, 2020 . Retrieved May 18, 2020 . ^ "Peruta v. California" (PDF) . Archived (PDF) from the original on February 14, 2021 . Retrieved May 18, 2020 . ^ "Silvester v. Becerra" (PDF) . Archived (PDF) from the original on May 28, 2020 . Retrieved May 18, 2020 . ^ "Guedes, Damien, et al. v. Bureau of Alcohol, et al" (PDF) . supremecourt.gov. April 5, 2019. Archived (PDF) from the original on June 12, 2019 . Retrieved June 29, 2019 . ^ Indianapolis v. Edmond, 531 U.S. 32 (2000) Archived July 20, 2008, at the Wayback Machine. Full text of opinion courtesy of Findlaw.com. ^ a b c Safford Unified School District v. Redding, 557 U. S. __ (2009). Full text of opinion courtesy of Findlaw.com. Archived November 8, 2021, at the Wayback Machine ^ "Court Says Strip Search of Ariz. Teenager Illegal", Associated Press via NPR (June 25, 2009). ^ a b c Doggett v. United States, 505 U.S. 647 (1992) Archived November 8, 2021, at the Wayback Machine. Full text of opinion courtesy of Findlaw.com. ^ Liptak, Adam (March 4, 2019). "Precedent, Meet Clarence Thomas. You May Not Get Along". The New York Times. Archived from the original on October 16, 2019 . Retrieved April 13, 2019 . ^ a b c Hudson v. McMillian, 503 U.S. 1 (1992) Archived March 10, 2007, at the Wayback Machine. ^ a b Garrow, David (October 25, 2004), "Saving Thomas" Archived July 23, 2011, at the Wayback Machine, The New Republic ^ United States v. Bajakajian, 524 U.S. 321 Archived April 19, 2010, at the Wayback Machine (1998). ^ "Proportionality". Justia Law. Archived from the original on December 27, 2019 . Retrieved December 27, 2019 . ^ Adarand Constructors, Inc. v. Pe±a, 515 U.S. 200 Archived August 23, 2009, at the Wayback Machine (1995). ^ Gratz v. Bollinger, 539 U.S. 244 Archived June 28, 2009, at the Wayback Machine (2003). ^ a b Parents Involved in Community Schools v. Seattle School District No. 1, 551 U.S. 701 Archived July 4, 2008, at the Wayback Machine (2007). ^ Grutter v. Bollinger, 539 U.S. 306 Archived August 20, 2009, at the Wayback Machine (2003). ^ "Missouri v. Jenkins, 515 U.S. 70 (1995)". cornell.edu. Archived from the original on July 11, 2017 . Retrieved June 27, 2017 . ^ Yoo, John, Opinion (October 9, 2007) The Real Clarence Thomas Archived July 17, 2017, at the Wayback Machine The Wall Street Journal. ^ a b c Planned Parenthood v. Casey, 505 U.S. 833 Archived May 17, 2008, at the Wayback Machine (1992). ^ Stenberg v. Carhart, 530 U.S. 914 Archived July 20, 2008, at the Wayback Machine (2000). ^ a b c Gonzales v. Carhart, 550 U.S. 124 Archived November 8, 2021, at the Wayback Machine (2007). ^ Higgins, Tucker (December 10, 2018). "Supreme Court hamstrings states' efforts to defund Planned Parenthood". cnbc.com. Archived from the original on February 14, 2021 . Retrieved December 11, 2018 . ^ "US Supreme Court Justices won't hear states' appeal over Planned Parenthood". FOX6Now.com. December 10, 2018. Archived from the original on February 14, 2021 . Retrieved December 11, 2018 . ^ "Supreme Court Chief Justice John Roberts joins liberal justices to block Louisiana abortion clinic law". cbsnews.com. Archived from the original on February 14, 2021 . Retrieved February 10, 2019 . ^ Totenberg, Nina; Montanaro, Domenico; Gonzales, Richard; Campbell, Barbara (February 7, 2019). "Supreme Court Stops Louisiana Abortion Law From Being Implemented". NPR. Archived from the original on February 14, 2021 . Retrieved February 10, 2019 . ^ a b "Kristina Box, Commissioner, Indiana Department of Health, et al. v. Planned Parenthood of Indiana and Kentucky. Inc., et al" (PDF) . www.supremecourt.gov. 2019. Archived (PDF) from the original on April 30, 2020 . Retrieved May 10, 2020 . ^ Cohen, Adam (May 29, 2019). "Clarence Thomas Knows Nothing of My Work". The Atlantic. Archived from the original on November 28, 2019 . Retrieved November 12, 2019 . ^ "Romer v. Evans". The Oyez Project. Archived from the original on March 30, 2010 . Retrieved April 11, 2010 . ^ Lawrence v. Texas, 539 U.S. 558, 605 (2003). ^ "Supreme Court finds federal law bars LGBT discrimination in workplace". POLITICO. Archived from the original on June 15, 2020 . Retrieved June 15, 2020 . ^ Balluck, Kyle (October 5, 2020). "Supreme Court rejects bid by ex-Kentucky clerk who defied gay marriage ruling to block lawsuit". TheHill. Archived from the original on October 5, 2020 . Retrieved October 5, 2020 . ^ De Vogue, Arianne; Duster, Chandelis. "Justices Thomas and Alito Lash Out at the Decision that Cleared Way for Same-sex Marriage". CNN. Archived from the original on October 5, 2020 . Retrieved October 5, 2020 . ^ Barnes, Robert (October 4, 2020). "Supreme Court will not hear Kim Davis same-sex marriage case". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on October 5, 2020 . Retrieved October 5, 2020 . ^ De Vogue, Ariane; Stracqualursi, Veronica (July 2, 2021). "Supreme Court rejects appeal from florist who wouldn't make arrangement for same-sex wedding". CNN. Archived from the original on July 3, 2021 . Retrieved July 5, 2021 . ^ Higgins, Tucker (July 2, 2021). "Supreme Court declines to decide whether religious flower shop owner can refuse same-sex weddings". CNBC. Archived from the original on July 2, 2021 . Retrieved July 5, 2021 . ^ Dwyer, Devin (July 2, 2021). "Gay couple wins case against florist after Supreme Court rejects appeal". ABC News. Archived from the original on July 3, 2021 . Retrieved July 5, 2021 . ^ "Supreme Court won't hear case involving transgender rights". AP NEWS. November 1, 2021. Archived from the original on November 3, 2021 . Retrieved November 2, 2021 . ^ Chung, Andrew; Hurley, Lawrence (November 2, 2021). "U.S. Supreme Court spurns Catholic hospital appeal over transgender patient". Reuters. Archived from the original on November 2, 2021 . Retrieved November 2, 2021 . ^ Press |, Associated (November 2, 2021). "Supreme Court turns down Northern California Catholic hospital appeal over transgender patient". The Mercury News. Archived from the original on November 2, 2021 . Retrieved November 2, 2021 . ^ "Justice Thomas asks questions in court, 1st time in 10 years". Fox News. February 29, 2016. Archived from the original on March 2, 2016 . Retrieved February 29, 2016 . ^ a b c Liptak, Adam (February 1, 2016). "It's Been 10 Years. Would Clarence Thomas Like to Add Anything?". The New York Times. Archived from the original on March 1, 2016 . Retrieved February 27, 2016 . ^ "Supreme Court's Thomas breaks nearly 7-year court silence". Archived from the original on July 31, 2017 . Retrieved October 10, 2016 . ^ Quinn, Melissa (May 7, 2020). "Telephone arguments spotlight usually silent Clarence Thomas". CBS News. Archived from the original on May 11, 2020 . Retrieved May 10, 2020 . ^ Biskupic, Joan (May 9, 2020). "Justice Clarence Thomas has found his moment". CNN. Archived from the original on May 9, 2020 . Retrieved May 10, 2020 . ^ Liptak, Adam (May 3, 2021). "Justice Clarence Thomas, Long Silent, Has Turned Talkative". The New York Times. Archived from the original on May 3, 2021 . Retrieved May 4, 2021 . ^ Chung, Andrew; Hurley, Lawrence (May 12, 2021). "Amid pandemic, U.S. Justice Clarence Thomas has a question or two". Reuters. Archived from the original on May 22, 2021 . Retrieved May 22, 2021 . ^ Bravin, Brent Kendall and Jess (May 9, 2020). "Justice Clarence Thomas Finds His Voice". The Wall Street Journal. Archived from the original on May 10, 2020 . Retrieved May 10, 2020 . ^ Patterson, Orlando (June 17, 2007), "Thomas Agonistes" Archived July 31, 2017, at the Wayback Machine, The New York Times, p. 2. Retrieved April 28, 2010 ^ Kane, Gregory (December 17, 2000). "Justice Thomas' silence speaks volumes to critics '' tribunedigital-baltimoresun". The Baltimore Sun. Archived from the original on March 4, 2016 . Retrieved January 7, 2016 . ^ "Justice Clarence Thomas". The New York Times. December 14, 2000. Archived from the original on April 3, 2012 . Retrieved November 8, 2010 . ^ Barnes, Robert (February 17, 2013). "The question of Clarence Thomas". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on October 30, 2017 . Retrieved August 25, 2017 . ^ Bedard, Paul (November 29, 2007). "This Is Not Perry Mason" Archived May 5, 2010, at the Wayback Machine. Washington Whispers. U.S. News & World Report. ^ Porter, Amber (March 27, 2012). "Six Years of Silence for Supreme Court Justice Clarence Thomas". ABC News. Archived from the original on May 16, 2021 . Retrieved May 15, 2021 '' via Yahoo! News. Of the few times in recent memory that Justice Thomas has felt compelled to join the fray, it was during a hearing in 2002 that stunned the audience most. Speaking passionately on the issue of banning the burning of the cross he said, 'Now, it's my understanding that we had almost 100 years of lynching and activity in the South by the Knights of Camellia and'--and the Ku Klux Klan, and this was a reign of terror and the cross was a symbol of that reign of terror. Was'--isn't that significantly greater than intimidation or a threat?' ^ Garrow, David (October 6, 1996). "The Rehnquist Reins" Archived September 7, 2018, at the Wayback Machine. The New York Times Magazine. ^ Toobin, Jeffrey (February 21, 2014). "Clarence Thomas' Disgraceful Silence". The New Yorker. Archived from the original on March 6, 2016 . Retrieved February 27, 2016 . ^ Jones, RonNell Anderson; Nielson, Aaron L. (2017). "Clarence Thomas the Questioner". Northwestern University Law Review Online. 111: 197''229. Archived from the original on October 28, 2020 '' via Northwestern Pritzker School of Law Scholarly Commons. ^ a b Jones, RonNell Andersen; Nielson, Aaron L. (May 7, 2020). "Pandemic Proves Justice Thomas Does Have Something to Say". The Hill. Archived from the original on March 31, 2021 . Retrieved August 25, 2021 . ^ Merida, Kevin; Fletcher, Michael A. (April 22, 2007). "Justice Thomas's Life A Tangle of Poverty, Privilege and Race". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on October 11, 2008 . Retrieved April 20, 2009 . ^ "Justice Thomas marches to own tune", USA Today, Associated Press, September 3, 2001. ^ Hennessey, Kathleen (March 14, 2010). "Justice's wife launches 'tea party' group". Los Angeles Times. Archived from the original on March 24, 2010 . Retrieved March 15, 2010 . ^ Vogel, Kenneth; Cogan, Marin; Bresnahan, John (February 4, 2011). "Justice Thomas's wife Virginia Thomas now a lobbyist". Politico. Archived from the original on February 6, 2011 . Retrieved February 4, 2011 . ^ Lichtblau, Eric (February 4, 2011). "Justice Thomas's Wife Sets Up a Conservative Lobbying Shop". The New York Times. Archived from the original on February 5, 2011 . Retrieved February 4, 2011 . ^ Sonmez, Felicia (February 9, 2011). "House Democrats say Justice Thomas should recuse himself in health-care case". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on November 3, 2014 . Retrieved September 23, 2014 . ^ Barnes, Robert. "Ginni Thomas apologizes to husband's Supreme Court clerks after Capitol riot fallout". The Washington Post. ISSN 0190-8286. Archived from the original on February 3, 2021 . Retrieved February 4, 2021 . ^ Heyer, Kristin E.; Rozell, Mark J.; Genovese, Michael A. (2008). Catholics and Politics: The Dynamic Tension Between Faith and Power . Georgetown University Press. p. 167. ISBN 978-1-58901-653-8 . Retrieved March 1, 2013 . ^ Escobar, Allyson (July 18, 2018). "Why do Catholics make up a majority of the Supreme Court?". America. New York, New York: America Press (Society of Jesus). Archived from the original on September 22, 2020 . Retrieved May 7, 2021 . ^ Geiger, Kim (January 22, 2011). "Clarence Thomas failed to report wife's income, watchdog says". Los Angeles Times. Archived from the original on January 29, 2011 . Retrieved January 23, 2011 . ^ Lichtblau, Eric (January 24, 2011). "Thomas Cites Failure to Disclose Wife's Job". The New York Times. Archived from the original on June 11, 2011 . Retrieved January 29, 2011 . ^ Camia, Catalina (January 24, 2011). "Clarence Thomas fixes reports to include wife's pay". USA Today. Archived from the original on January 28, 2011 . Retrieved February 5, 2011 . ^ Coyle, Marcia (October 27, 2016). "Young Scholar, Now Lawyer, Says Clarence Thomas Groped Her in 1999". Law.com. Archived from the original on June 16, 2019 . Retrieved June 16, 2019 . ^ Worland, Justin (October 27, 2016). "Supreme Court Justice Clarence Thomas Denies Groping Accusation". Time. New York, New York. Archived from the original on May 28, 2019 . Retrieved June 16, 2019 . ^ Sherman, Mark (August 6, 2020). "Justice Thomas maps own course, at wheel of his 40-foot bus". Associated Press. Archived from the original on August 6, 2020 . Retrieved August 6, 2020 . ^ "Justice Clarence Thomas -- RV enthusiast". The Takeaway. August 6, 2009. Archived from the original on June 10, 2020 . Retrieved August 18, 2020 . Works cited Foskett, Ken (2004). Judging Thomas: The Life and Times of Clarence Thomas. William Morrow. ISBN 978-0-06-052721-1. Greenburg, Jan Crawford (2007). Supreme Conflict: The Inside Story of the Struggle for Control of the United States Supreme Court. Penguin Group. ISBN 978-1-59420-101-1. Toobin, Jeffrey (2007). The Nine: Inside the Secret World of the Supreme Court. Random House. ISBN 978-0-385-51640-2. Robin, Corey (2019). The Enigma of Clarence Thomas. New York, NY: Metropolitan Books. ISBN 9781627793841. Further reading Abraham, Henry J. (2007). Justices, Presidents, and Senators: A History of the U.S. Supreme Court Appointments from Washington to Bush II (5th ed.). Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. ISBN 978-0-7425-5895-3. Brooks, Roy L. (2008). Structures of Judicial Decision Making from Legal Formalism to Critical Theory (2nd ed.). Durham, NC: Carolina Academic Press. ISBN 978-1-59460-123-1. Carp, Dylan (September 1998). "Out of Scalia's Shadow". Liberty. Archived from the original on February 13, 2006. Cushman, Clare, ed. (2001). The Supreme Court Justices: Illustrated Biographies, 1789''1995 (2nd ed.). Supreme Court Historical Society, Congressional Quarterly Books. ISBN 978-1-56802-126-3. Frank, John P. (1995). Friedman, Leon; Israel, Fred L. (eds.). The Justices of the United States Supreme Court: Their Lives and Major Opinions. Chelsea House Publishers. ISBN 978-0-7910-1377-9. Gerber, Scott D (1999). First Principles: The Jurisprudence of Clarence Thomas. New York University Press. ISBN 978-0-8147-3099-7. Hall, Kermit L., ed. (1992). The Oxford Companion to the Supreme Court of the United States. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-505835-2. Holzer, Henry Mark (2006). Supreme Court Opinions of Clarence Thomas 1991''2006: A Conservative's Perspective. Madison Press. ISBN 978-1-59113-911-9. Lazarus, Edward (January 6, 2005). "Will Clarence Thomas Be the Court's Next Chief Justice?". FindLaw. Archived from the original on August 20, 2010 . Retrieved May 15, 2010 . Mayer, Jane; Abramson, Jill (1994). Strange Justice: The Selling of Clarence Thomas. Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 978-0-452-27499-0. Martin, Fenton S.; Goehlert, Robert U. (1990). The U.S. Supreme Court: A Bibliography. Congressional Quarterly Books. ISBN 978-0-87187-554-9. Onwuachi-Willig, Angela (January 2005). "Just Another Brother on the SCT?: What Justice Clarence Thomas Teaches Us About the Influence of Racial Identity". Iowa Law Review. University of Iowa College of Law. 90: 931. SSRN 638281. Presser, Stephen B. (January''February 2005). "Touting Thomas: The Truth about America's Most Maligned Justice". Legal Affairs. Archived from the original on September 25, 2010 . Retrieved May 15, 2010 . Robin, Corey (2019). The Enigma of Clarence Thomas. New York: Metropolitan Books. ISBN 978-1-62779-383-4. Rossum, Ralph A. (2013). Understanding Clarence Thomas: The Jurisprudence of Constitutional Restoration. University Press of Kansas. Thomas, Andrew Peyton (2001). Clarence Thomas: A Biography. Encounter Books. ISBN 978-1-893554-36-8. Urofsky, Melvin I. (1994). The Supreme Court Justices: A Biographical Dictionary. New York: Garland Publishing. ISBN 978-0-8153-1176-8. Woodward, Robert; Armstrong, Scott (1979). The Brethren: Inside the Supreme Court. New York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 978-0-671-24110-0. External links Clarence Thomas at the Biographical Directory of Federal Judges, a public domain publication of the Federal Judicial Center.Clarence Thomas at BallotpediaIssue positions and quotes at On the IssuesAppearances on C-SPANCornell Law School Biography of Clarence ThomasOyez, Official Supreme Court media, Clarence Thomas biographySupreme Court Associate Justice Nomination Hearings on Clarence Thomas in September and October 1991 United States Government Publishing OfficeJohn Jay (1789''1795, cases)John Rutledge (1795, cases)Oliver Ellsworth (1796''1800, cases)John Marshall (1801''1835, cases)Roger B. Taney (1836''1864, cases)Salmon P. Chase (1864''1873, cases)Morrison Waite (1874''1888, cases)Melville Fuller (1888''1910, cases)Edward Douglass White (1910''1921, cases)William Howard Taft (1921''1930, cases)Charles Evans Hughes (1930''1941, cases)Harlan F. Stone (1941''1946, cases)Fred M. Vinson (1946''1953, cases)Earl Warren (1953''1969, cases)Warren E. Burger (1969''1986, cases)William Rehnquist (1986''2005, cases)John Roberts (2005''present, cases)
  • The Murder of Eugene Williams and a Racial Reckoning - Chicago History Museum
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    • Wed, 26 Jan 2022 21:31
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    • One hundred and one years ago today, the Chicago Race Riot began with the murder of Eugene Williams and the failure of law enforcement to hold those responsible for his death accountable. On Sunday, July 27, 1919, thousands of Chicagoans sought relief from the brutal heat on the shores of Lake Michigan. Among them was Williams, a seventeen-year-old African American who was on a raft with some friends. They inadvertently drifted across an invisible line that divided the waters by race a few yards out from a ''white'' beach at 29th Street. Beachgoers witnessed George Stauber, a twenty-four-year-old white man, hurl stones at the boys until Williams fell off the raft and drowned. The first police officer at the scene, Daniel Callahan, refused to take Stauber into custody.
    • A large crowd of people assembled at the 29th Street beach after Eugene Williams's death, Chicago, July 27, 1919. CHM, ICHi-030315 As word spread of Williams's death, a large crowd gathered at the beach and the scene became tense. Soon, the racial powder keg that was Chicago exploded into a race riot that began on July 27 and ended on August 3, 1919. The eight-day riot was one of many racial conflicts throughout the United States that were a part of what became the Red Summer of 1919, when violence was used by whites to reassert racial dominance over African Americans.
    • Learn more about the event through Chicago 1919: Confronting the Race Riots , a year-long project coordinated by the Newberry Library in partnership with the Chicago History Museum and twelve other Chicago institutions. Explore Chicago 1919.
    • A group of white men stoning a victim under the corner of a house during the race riot in Chicago, 1919. CHM, ICHi-065493; Jun Fujita, photographerArmed National Guard and African American men stand on a sidewalk during the race riot in Chicago, 1919. CHM, ICHi-065478; Jun Fujita, photographer On PBS's The Future of America's Past , award-winning historian Ed Ayers travels to places that define misunderstood parts of America's past. In his ''Red Chicago'' episode, Ayers visits Chicago during the centennial of the ''Red Summer,'' when long-simmering tensions between white and Black residents in the city erupted in violence. Join him as he talks with a poet, a performance artist, as well as the Chicago History Museum's public and community engagement manager, Erica Griffin. Watch the episode.
    • The Chicago Stories Initiative Our fellow Chicago community organization, the Lookingglass Theatre, will feature COVID-considerate events/expressions that plumb the depth of Chicago's history and people, while inventing new Chicago traditions to carry us forward together. The first production of this series is Sunset 1919, which commemorates the start of the 1919 Chicago Race Riot by creating art to honor the fallen. This spoken-word piece is meant to peacefully honor the lives of Black humans impacted by the deadly racial attacks that swept the nation that summer, the roots of which stretch back across centuries, and the fruits of which we continue to pluck'--a moment in an unbroken line. See the film.
  • Poles in Chicago - Wikipedia
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    • Wed, 26 Jan 2022 21:26
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    • Poles in Chicago are made up of both immigrant Poles and Americans of Polish heritage living in Chicago, Illinois. They are a part of worldwide Polonia, the Polish term for the Polish Diaspora outside of Poland. Poles in Chicago have contributed to the economic, social and cultural well-being of Chicago from its very beginning. Poles have been a part of the history of Chicago since 1837, when Captain Joseph Napieralski, along with other veterans of the November Uprising first set foot there.[1][self-published source ][2] As of the 2000 U.S. census, Poles in Chicago were the largest European American ethnic group in the city, making up 7.3% of the total population.[3][4] However, according to the 2006''2008 American Community Survey, German Americans and Irish Americans each had slightly surpassed Polish Americans as the largest European American ethnic groups in Chicago. German Americans made up 7.3% of the population, and numbered at 199,789; Irish Americans also made up 7.3% of the population, and numbered at 199,294. Polish Americans now made up 6.7% of Chicago's population, and numbered at 182,064.[5] Polish is the third most widely spoken language in Chicago behind English and Spanish.
    • History [ edit ] A number of Poles contributed to the history of the city together with Captain Napieralski, a veteran of Cross Mountain[clarification needed ] during the November Uprising. Along with him came other early Polish settlers such as Major Louis Chlopicki, the nephew of General J"zef Chłopicki who had been the leader of the same insurrection. Not to mention certain A. Panakaske (Panakaski) who resided in the second ward in the 1830s as well as J. Zoliski who lived in the sixth ward with records of both men having cast their ballots for William B. Ogden in the 1837 mayoral race in Chicago.[2]
    • Distribution [ edit ] According to Dominic Pacyga, most of the Poles who first came to Chicago settled in five distinct parts of the city.[6] The first of those Polish Patches, as they were colloquially referred to, was located on the Near Northwest Side. Centering on the Polish Triangle at the intersection of Milwaukee and Ashland avenues with Division street it later became known as Polish Downtown. The second large settlement, developed in Pilsen on the west side near 18th street and Ashland avenue. Poles established two separate enclaves in the Stock Yard district, one in Bridgeport, the other in the Back of the Yards near 47th street and Ashland avenue. Another Polish neighborhood developed in the area around the massive Illinois Steel works in South Chicago in the area colloquially referred to as "the Bush".
    • Polish communities in Chicago were often founded and organized around parishes mostly by peasant immigrants who named their neighbourhoods after them, like Bronislawowo, named after St. Bronislava.* Sometimes the neighbourhoods are contiguous so its difficult to say precisely where one ends and one begins, as in the case of 'Stanislawowo' by the church of St. Stanislaus Kostka and 'Trojcowo' by Holy Trinity Polish Mission in the former area of Polish Downtown.
    • Initial historical Polish patches [ edit ] In Polish the ending 'owo' in e.g., Bronislawowo functions similar to English 'ville' in Johnsville or 'ton' in Charleston. When added to a name of a saint, it indicates a Polish sounding town or a village. This is a colloquial phenomenon, not present in educated Polish; however, it persists in the names of different Polish areas of Chicago.
    • Polish Downtown- (Pulaski Park, River West, Bucktown, Wicker Park, East Village, and Noble Square)
    • Trojcowo '' The area around Holy Trinity Polish MissionStanislawowo '' The area around St. Stanislaus Kostka in ChicagoKantowo '' The area around St. John Cantius in ChicagoMlodziankowo '' The area around Holy Innocents in ChicagoFidelisowo '' The area around St. FidelisHelenowo '' The area around St. HelenMarianowo '' The area around St. Mary of the Angels in ChicagoJadwigowo '' The area around St. Hedwig's in ChicagoLower West Side
    • Wojciechowo '' The area around St. Adalbert's in ChicagoAnnowo '' The area around St. Anns in ChicagoRomanowo '' The area around St. Roman'sKazimierzowo '' The area around the former St. Casimir'sBridgeport
    • NMP Nieustajacej Pomocy '' The area around St. Mary of Perpetual HelpBarbarowo '' The area around St. Barbara in ChicagoBack of the Yards
    • Jozefowo '' The area around St. Joseph's in ChicagoJanowo '' The area around St. John of GodSercanowo '' The area around Sacred HeartSouth Chicago
    • Niepokolanowo '' The area around Immaculate Conception in ChicagoMichalowo '' The area around St. Michael's in ChicagoMagdalenowo '' The area around St. Mary MagdaleneBronislawowo '' The area around St. BronislavaSubsequent historical Polish patches [ edit ] Later as Poles grew in number and advanced economically, they migrated further out into outlying areas.[7] The result was that the West Town/Logan Square settlement in Polish Downtown spread westward along North Avenue and northwestward along Milwaukee thereby creating a "Polish Corridor" which tied in contiguous areas such as Norwood Park, Jefferson Park, Portage Park, and Belmont-Cragin.[7] The same kind of advance occurred in the other original areas of Polish settlements so that Poles from both the Lower West Side and the Back of the Yards moved into both sides of Archer Avenue, giving rise to sizable Polish settlements on the Southwest Side of the city such as McKinley Park, Garfield Ridge, Brighton Park and Archer Heights.[7] On the far Southeast Side, the South Chicago "steel mill settlements" spilled over into Pullman, Roseland, East Side, Hegewisch and Calumet City as well as into Lake County in Northwest Indiana, where thriving Polish communities were found in North Hammond, Whiting, the Indian Harbor section of East Chicago and several neighborhoods in the newly built industrial city of Gary.[7]
    • North Side of Chicago [ edit ] Lincoln Park
    • Jozafatowo or Kaszubowo '' The area around the parish of St. Josaphat's in Chicago which was initially heavily CassubianLincoln Square
    • U Przemienienia '' The area around the parish of TransfigurationAvondaleChicago's Polish Village:
    • Jackowo '' The area around St. Hyacinth BasilicaWaclawowo '' The area around St. WenceslausIrving Park
    • Polskie Wille - The landmark Villa District, historically known as the "Polish Kenilworth"Niepokalanowo/ Małe Kaszuby '' The area around Immaculate Heart of Mary, also known as Little CassubiaPortage Park
    • Władysławowo '' The area around the parish of St. Ladislaus in ChicagoJefferson Park
    • Konstancowo '' The area around the parish of St. ConstanceNorwood Park
    • Teklowo '' The area around the parish of St. TheclaBelmont Cragin
    • Jakubowo '' The area around St. JamesU Biskupa/ Biskupowo (Stanislawowo) '' The area around the parish of St. Stanislaus Bishop and MartyrHumboldt Park
    • Franciszkowo '' The area around the parish of St. Francis of AssisiSouth Side of Chicago [ edit ] McKinley Park
    • Piotropawlowo '' The area around the parish of Ss Peter and PaulArcher Heights
    • Brunowo '' The area around the parish St. BrunoGarfield Ridge
    • Kamilowo '' The area around the parish of St. Camillus by Midway AirportBrighton Park
    • U Pieciu Braci '' The area around Five Holy MartyrsPankracowo '' The area around the parish of St. PancratiusSouth Lawndale
    • U Dobrego Pasterza/ Pasterzowo '' The area around the parish of Good ShepherdWest Elsdon
    • Turibiuszowo '' The area around the parish of St. TuribiusRoseland
    • Salomejowo '' The area around the parish of St. SalomeaHegewisch
    • Florianowo '' The area around the parish of St. FlorianOver the course of the city's development as the city's Polish community climbed further up the economic ladder and were followed by new waves of immigrants the concentration of Poles shifted to different areas of the city.
    • Religion [ edit ] As in Poland, the overwhelming majority of Polish immigrants who settled in Chicago were culturally very devout Roman Catholics. Though almost all of the Polish Americans remained loyal to the Catholic Church after immigrating, a breakaway Catholic church was founded in 1897 in Scranton, Pennsylvania. Polish parishioners founded the church to assert independence from the Catholic Church in America. The split was in rebellion from the church leadership, then dominated by Irish and German clergy, and lacking in Polish speakers and Polish church leaders. The Bucktown campus of the former Cathedral of All Saints still stands as a testament to this community of faith. The current Cathedral and Cemetery complex on the city's periphery by Rosemont remains active and is still independent from the authority of the Roman Catholic Church.
    • Poland is also home to followers of Protestantism and the Eastern Orthodox Church. Small groups of both of these groups are present Chicago. One of the most celebrated painters of religious icons in North America today is a Polish American Eastern Orthodox priest, Fr. Theodore Jurewicz, who singlehandedly painted New Gračanica Monastery in Third Lake, Illinois, over the span of three years.[8]
    • While large numbers of Jews from the former lands of the Polish''Lithuanian Commonwealth immigrated to the Chicago area, they faced a historical trajectory far different from that of their Christian counterparts. In the process of Americanization, many Polish Jews in Chicago would lose their identification with Poland, with notable exceptions. There have also been small numbers of Muslims, mostly Lipka Tatars originating from the Białystok region.
    • The Polish presence in Chicago today [ edit ] Institutions [ edit ] Chicago bills itself as the largest Polish city outside of Poland with approximately 1,900,000 people of Polish ethnicity in the Chicago metropolitan area.[9] Chicago's Polish presence is felt in the large number of Polish American organizations located there, including the Polish Museum of America, the Polish American Association, the Polish National Alliance and the Polish Highlanders Alliance of North America. A column fragment of Wawel Castle, the onetime seat of Poland's Royalty, has been incorporated into Chicago's landmark Tribune Tower as a visual tribute to Chicago's large Polish populace.
    • Culture [ edit ] 'Polish singing bar' on Milwaukee Avenue. Circa 1999
    • Chicago also has a thriving Polish cultural scene. The Polish Arts Club of Chicago was founded in 1926. The city hosts the Polish Film Festival of America where various Polish films are screened during the weeklong festival every October. Polish stage productions in both Polish and English are regularly staged at numerous venues throughout the Chicago Metropolitan Area. The most prominent venues among these are the Chopin and Gateway Theatres. The Gateway, which is also the seat of the Polish Cultural Center in Chicago is the home of the Paderewski Symphony Orchestra. The Lira Ensemble, the only professional performing arts company outside of Poland that specializes in Polish music, song, and dance is Artist-in-Residence at Loyola University Chicago. Chicago is also host to several Polish folk dances ensembles that teach traditions to Polish-American children.
    • Chicago celebrates its Polish Heritage every Labor Day weekend at the Taste of Polonia Festival in Jefferson Park, attended by such political notables as President George H. W. Bush, Dick Cheney, Newt Gingrich, Hadassah Lieberman, Congresswoman Melissa Bean, and Tipper Gore.[10] Illinois, due to the influence of this large population, is also one of the few states that celebrates Casimir Pulaski Day. Some schools and government services in the metro area are closed for the holiday.
    • The Almanac of American Politics 2004 states that "Even today, in Archer Heights [a neighborhood of Chicago], you can scarcely go a block without hearing someone speaking Polish". This may be anachronistic because, although once true, today the Archer Heights neighborhood is predominately Mexican-American and Mexican, with many of the Polish former residents having died or moved to the suburbs. This is reflected in many of the businesses which served the Polish community having been replaced with businesses which serve the Mexican community. Polish-language business signs, once ubiquitous in Archer Heights, are now quite rare, while Spanish-language signs are seen on many businesses in the area.
    • Much of 1950s Chicago Polish youth culture was captured in the 1972 musical Grease, in which the majority of characters had Polish surnames (Zuko, Dumbrowski, Kenickie); Jim Jacobs, who conceived Grease, based the musical on his real-life experiences in a Chicago high school. Much of the Polish-American nature of the musical was discarded when Grease was made into a feature film in 1978, casting non-Polish actors in the lead roles, and subsequent productions have also followed the film's lead in toning down the Chicago Polish influences.
    • Ponglish [ edit ] Some of Chicago Polonia (the Polish term for members of the expatriate Polish community) speak the American sub dialect of Ponglish (usually referred to as Chicagowski by local Poles) a fusion of the Polish and English languages. Ponglish is a common (to greater or lesser degree, almost unavoidable) phenomenon among persons bilingual in Polish and English, and its avoidance requires considerable effort and attention. Ponglish is a manifestation of a broader phenomenon, that of language interference.
    • Notable persons [ edit ] This section
    • needs expansion. You can help by
    • adding to it.
    • ( May 2015
    • ) Actors, singers, and directors [ edit ] Stanley Andrews, born Stanley Andrzejewski, an American actor who played the voice of Daddy Warbucks on the radio program Little Orphan AnnieCarlos Bernard, born Carlos Bernard Papierski, an American actor and director, best known for his role as Tony Almeida in 24Casey and Nina Siemaszko '' American actorsWriters and authors [ edit ] Stuart Dybek '' writer of fiction and poetryJohn Guzlowski '' authorBusinessmen and entrepreneurs [ edit ] John S. Flizikowski '' architect of residential, church, and commercial buildings during the late 19th and early 20th centuriesPaul Bragiel '' Silicon Valley entrepreneur & venture capitalist, Colombia national team cross country skierMusicians and composers [ edit ] Jack Benny, born Benjamin Kubelsky, American comedian, vaudevillian, radio, television and film actor, and violinistWalter Jagiello - polka musician known as L'il Wally who was one of the first two inductees into the International Polka Association Polka Hall of Fame.Feliks Konarski '' poet, songwriter, and cabaret performerKrzysztof Klenczon '' singer and songwriter and member of the group Czerwone GitaryRay Manzarek '' keyboardist of The DoorsArtur RodziÅski conductor of opera and symphonic musicFlora Zygman '' pianist, music educatorClergy [ edit ] Vincent Barzynski '' Roman Catholic priest and organizer Painters, sculptors, and artists [ edit ] Jerzy Kenar '' sculptorRichard Nickel '' architectural photographer and historical preservationistEd Paschke '' painterMary Stanisia '' American Catholic artist and painterJohn J. Szaton '' sculptorStanisław Szukalski '' painter and sculptorKatarzyna Mecinski (also known as Fifty na Pol) - YouTube vloggerGovernment officials and politicians [ edit ] Andrzej Czuma '' politician, lawyer and historian, an activist of the Polish anti-Communist opposition in the Polish People's RepublicPeter Kiołbassa (1837''1905) Democratic politician in the City of Chicago who helped organize St. Stanislaus Kostka parishJohn Kluczynski '' U.S. Representative representing Illinois's 5th congressional districtRobert Martwick '' Democratic member of the Illinois House of RepresentativesRoman Conrad Pucinski '' Democratic Party Politician and U.S. RepresentativeDaniel David "Dan" Rostenkowski '' United States Representative and Chairman of the House Ways and Means CommitteeJohn Francis Smulski American politician and businessman.Scholars [ edit ] Oskar Lange '' economist and diplomatMarta Ptaszynska '' University of Chicago professorSports [ edit ] Krzysztof Hausner '' football right-wing forward, most notable for his performances for Cracovia KrakowMike Krzyzewski '' Basketball coachAl Piechota '' Professional baseball player whose career spanned 15 seasonsCriminals [ edit ] Ted Kaczynski '' Evergreen Park math professor and terroristTillie Klimek '' serial killerSteven Kazmierczak '' Northern Illinois University shooting of February 14, 2008See also [ edit ] Diaspora politics in the United StatesFelician SistersPolish Cathedral style churchesPolish Constitution Day ParadePolish FalconsPolish Roman Catholic Union of AmericaFourth Partition, a 2013 documentary filmReferences [ edit ] ^ Lodesky, James D. Polish Pioneers in Illinois 1818-1850, XLibris (2010), p. 79 ^ a b Parot, Joseph J. Polish Catholics in Chicago, 1850''1920, Northwestern University Press (1981), p. 19 ^ Parot, Joseph, J. "Polish Catholics in Chicago, 1850-1920, Northwestern University Press (1981), p. 18 ^ "Chicago city, Illinois - Profile of Selected Social Characteristics: 2000". American FactFinder. United States Census Bureau. 2000-04-01. Archived from the original on 12 February 2020 . Retrieved 23 January 2010 . ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2020-02-11 . Retrieved 2010-06-24 . {{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) ^ Pacyga, Dominic "Polish Immigrants and Industrial Chicago: Workers on the South Side, 1880''1922" University of Chicago Press, 1991, pp. 41''42 ^ a b c d Parot, Joseph, J. "Polish Catholics in Chicago, 1850''1920, Northwestern University Press (1981), p. 75 ^ Serbian Monastery of New Gracanica '' History Archived 2009-02-21 at the Wayback Machine ^ Paral, Rob (June 2004). "The Polish Community in Metro Chicago: A Community Profile of Strengths and Needs, A Census 2000 Report" (PDF) . RobParal.com. Polish American Association. p. 18 . Retrieved 23 January 2010 . ^ America the diverse - Chicago's Polish neighborhoods (5/15/2005)USA Weekend Magazine. Further reading [ edit ] Erdmans, Mary Patrice. Opposite Poles: Immigrants and Ethnics in Polish Chicago, 1976-1990. Penn State University Press, 1998.Pacyga, Dominic A. (2019). American Warsaw: The Rise, Fall, and Rebirth of Polish Chicago. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 9780226406619. External links [ edit ] Former President of Poland Lech Walesa speaking on the role of Poles in Chicago in the end of communism in PolandPolish Localizer Polsort '' Polish Businesses and Organizations in ChicagoCurrent Polish patches: Polish Masses in Chicago Area provided by Polsort
  • Phenotype - Wikipedia
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    • Composite of the organism's observable characteristics or traits
    • Look up phenotype in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. Here the relation between
    • genotype and phenotype is illustrated, using a
    • Punnett square, for the character of petal color in pea plants. The letters B and b represent
    • genes for color, and the pictures show the resultant phenotypes. This shows how multiple genotypes (BB and Bb) may yield the same phenotype (purple petals).
    • In genetics, the phenotype (from Greek φαινÎ- (faino-) 'showing', and ÏύÏÎς (tºpos) 'type') is the set of observable characteristics or traits of an organism.[1][2] The term covers the organism's morphology or physical form and structure, its developmental processes, its biochemical and physiological properties, its behavior, and the products of behavior. An organism's phenotype results from two basic factors: the expression of an organism's genetic code, or its genotype, and the influence of environmental factors. Both factors may interact, further affecting phenotype. When two or more clearly different phenotypes exist in the same population of a species, the species is called polymorphic. A well-documented example of polymorphism is Labrador Retriever coloring; while the coat color depends on many genes, it is clearly seen in the environment as yellow, black, and brown. Richard Dawkins in 1978[3] and then again in his 1982 book The Extended Phenotype suggested that one can regard bird nests and other built structures such as caddis-fly larva cases and beaver dams as "extended phenotypes".
    • Wilhelm Johannsen proposed the genotype''phenotype distinction in 1911 to make clear the difference between an organism's heredity and what that heredity produces.[4][5] The distinction resembles that proposed by August Weismann (1834''1914), who distinguished between germ plasm (heredity) and somatic cells (the body).
    • The genotype''phenotype distinction should not be confused with Francis Crick's central dogma of molecular biology, a statement about the directionality of molecular sequential information flowing from DNA to protein, and not the reverse.
    • Difficulties in definition [ edit ] Despite its seemingly straightforward definition, the concept of the phenotype has hidden subtleties. It may seem that anything dependent on the genotype is a phenotype, including molecules such as RNA and proteins. Most molecules and structures coded by the genetic material are not visible in the appearance of an organism, yet they are observable (for example by Western blotting) and are thus part of the phenotype; human blood groups are an example. It may seem that this goes beyond the original intentions of the concept with its focus on the (living) organism in itself. Either way, the term phenotype includes inherent traits or characteristics that are observable or traits that can be made visible by some technical procedure. A notable extension to this idea is the presence of "organic molecules" or metabolites that are generated by organisms from chemical reactions of enzymes.
    • ABO blood groups determined through a Punnett square and displaying phenotypes and genotypes
    • The term "phenotype" has sometimes been incorrectly used as a shorthand for the phenotypic difference between a mutant and its wild type, which (if not significant) leads to the statement that a "mutation has no phenotype".[6]
    • Another extension adds behavior to the phenotype, since behaviors are observable characteristics. Behavioral phenotypes include cognitive, personality, and behavioral patterns. Some behavioral phenotypes may characterize psychiatric disorders[7] or syndromes.[8][9]
    • B.betularia morpha
    • carbonaria, the melanic form, illustrating discontinuous variation
    • Phenotypic variation [ edit ] Phenotypic variation (due to underlying heritable genetic variation) is a fundamental prerequisite for evolution by natural selection. It is the living organism as a whole that contributes (or not) to the next generation, so natural selection affects the genetic structure of a population indirectly via the contribution of phenotypes. Without phenotypic variation, there would be no evolution by natural selection.[10]
    • The interaction between genotype and phenotype has often been conceptualized by the following relationship:
    • genotype (G) + environment (E) '†' phenotype (P)A more nuanced version of the relationship is:
    • genotype (G) + environment (E) + genotype & environment interactions (GE) '†' phenotype (P)Genotypes often have much flexibility in the modification and expression of phenotypes; in many organisms these phenotypes are very different under varying environmental conditions (see ecophenotypic variation). The plant Hieracium umbellatum is found growing in two different habitats in Sweden. One habitat is rocky, sea-side cliffs, where the plants are bushy with broad leaves and expanded inflorescences; the other is among sand dunes where the plants grow prostrate with narrow leaves and compact inflorescences. These habitats alternate along the coast of Sweden and the habitat that the seeds of Hieracium umbellatum land in, determine the phenotype that grows.[11]
    • An example of random variation in Drosophila flies is the number of ommatidia, which may vary (randomly) between left and right eyes in a single individual as much as they do between different genotypes overall, or between clones raised in different environments.
    • The concept of phenotype can be extended to variations below the level of the gene that affect an organism's fitness. For example, silent mutations that do not change the corresponding amino acid sequence of a gene may change the frequency of guanine-cytosine base pairs (GC content). These base pairs have a higher thermal stability (melting point) than adenine-thymine, a property that might convey, among organisms living in high-temperature environments, a selective advantage on variants enriched in GC content.[citation needed ]
    • The extended phenotype [ edit ] Richard Dawkins described a phenotype that included all effects that a gene has on its surroundings, including other organisms, as an extended phenotype, arguing that "An animal's behavior tends to maximize the survival of the genes 'for' that behavior, whether or not those genes happen to be in the body of the particular animal performing it."[3] For instance, an organism such as a beaver modifies its environment by building a beaver dam; this can be considered an expression of its genes, just as its incisor teeth are'--which it uses to modify its environment. Similarly, when a bird feeds a brood parasite such as a cuckoo, it is unwittingly extending its phenotype; and when genes in an orchid affect orchid bee behavior to increase pollination, or when genes in a peacock affect the copulatory decisions of peahens, again, the phenotype is being extended. Genes are, in Dawkins's view, selected by their phenotypic effects.[12]
    • Other biologists broadly agree that the extended phenotype concept is relevant, but consider that its role is largely explanatory, rather than assisting in the design of experimental tests.[13]
    • Phenome and phenomics [ edit ] Although a phenotype is the ensemble of observable characteristics displayed by an organism, the word phenome is sometimes used to refer to a collection of traits, while the simultaneous study of such a collection is referred to as phenomics.[14][15] Phenomics is an important field of study because it can be used to figure out which genomic variants affect phenotypes which then can be used to explain things like health, disease, and evolutionary fitness.[16] Phenomics forms a large part of the Human Genome Project[17]
    • Phenomics has applications in agriculture. For instance, genomic variations such as drought and heat resistance can be identified through phenomics to create more durable GMOs.[18][19]
    • Phenomics may be a stepping stone towards personalized medicine, particularly drug therapy.[20] Once the phenomic database has acquired more data, a person's phenomic information can be used to select specific drugs tailored to an individual.[20]
    • Large-scale phenotyping and genetic screens [ edit ] Large-scale genetic screens can identify the genes or mutations that affect the phenotype of an organism. Analyzing the phenotypes of mutant genes can also aid in determining gene function.[21] For example, a large-scale phenotypic screen has been used to study lesser understood phenotypes such as behavior. In this screen, the role of mutations in mice were studied in areas such as learning and memory, circadian rhythmicity, vision, responses to stress and response to psychostimulants (see table for details).
    • This experiment involved the progeny of mice treated with ENU, or N-ethyl-N-nitrosourea, which is a potent mutagen that causes point mutations. The mice were phenotypically screened for alterations in the different behavioral domains in order to find the number of putative mutants (see table for details). Putative mutants are then tested for heritability in order to help determine the inheritance pattern as well as map out the mutations. Once they have been mapped out, cloned, and identified, it can be determined whether a mutation represents a new gene or not.
    • Phenotypic domainENU Progeny screenedPutative mutantsPutative mutant lines with progenyConfirmed mutantsGeneral assessment29860803814Learning and memory2312316510619Psychostimulant response20997168869Neuroendocrine response to stress13118126542Vision15582108606These experiments showed that mutations in the rhodopsin gene affected vision and can even cause retinal degeneration in mice.[22] The same amino acid change causes human familial blindness, showing how phenotyping in animals can inform medical diagnostics and possibly therapy.
    • Evolutionary origin of phenotype [ edit ] The RNA world is the hypothesized pre-cellular stage in the evolutionary history of life on earth, in which self-replicating RNA molecules proliferated prior to the evolution of DNA and proteins.[23] The folded three-dimensional physical structure of the first RNA molecule that possessed ribozyme activity promoting replication while avoiding destruction would have been the first phenotype, and the nucleotide sequence of the first self-replicating RNA molecule would have been the original genotype.[23]
    • See also [ edit ] EcotypeEndophenotypeGenotypeGenotype-phenotype distinctionMolecular phenotypingRace and geneticsReferences [ edit ] ^ "phenotype adjective '' Definition, pictures, pronunciation and usage notes". Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary at OxfordLearnersDictionaries.com . Retrieved 2020-04-29 . the set of observable characteristics of an individual resulting from the interaction of its genotype with the environment. ^ "Genotype versus phenotype". Understanding Evolution . Retrieved 2020-04-29 . An organism's genotype is the set of genes that it carries. An organism's phenotype is all of its observable characteristics '-- which are influenced both by its genotype and by the environment. ^ a b Dawkins R (May 1978). "Replicator selection and the extended phenotype". Zeitschrift Fur Tierpsychologie. 47 (1): 61''76. doi:10.1111/j.1439-0310.1978.tb01823.x. PMID 696023. ^ Churchill FB (1974). "William Johannsen and the genotype concept". Journal of the History of Biology. 7 (1): 5''30. doi:10.1007/BF00179291. PMID 11610096. S2CID 38649212. ^ Johannsen W (August 2014). "The genotype conception of heredity. 1911". International Journal of Epidemiology. 43 (4): 989''1000. doi:10.1086/279202. JSTOR 2455747. PMC 4258772 . PMID 24691957. ^ Crusio WE (May 2002). " 'My mouse has no phenotype' ". Genes, Brain, and Behavior. 1 (2): 71. doi:10.1034/j.1601-183X.2002.10201.x . PMID 12884976. S2CID 35382304. ^ Cassidy SB, Morris CA (2002-01-01). "Behavioral phenotypes in genetic syndromes: genetic clues to human behavior". Advances in Pediatrics. 49: 59''86. PMID 12214780. ^ O'Brien G, Yule W, eds. (1995). Behavioural Phenotype. Clinics in Developmental Medicine No.138. London: Mac Keith Press. ISBN 978-1-898683-06-3. ^ O'Brien, Gregory, ed. (2002). Behavioural Phenotypes in Clinical Practice. London: Mac Keith Press. ISBN 978-1-898683-27-8 . Retrieved 27 September 2010 . ^ Lewontin RC (November 1970). "The Units of Selection" (PDF) . Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics. 1: 1''18. doi:10.1146/annurev.es.01.110170.000245. JSTOR 2096764. ^ "Botany online: Evolution: The Modern Synthesis - Phenotypic and Genetic Variation; Ecotypes". Archived from the original on 2009-06-18 . Retrieved 2009-12-29 . ^ Dawkins R (1982). The Extended Phenotype. Oxford University. p. 4. ISBN 978-0-19-288051-2. ^ Hunter P (March 2009). "Extended phenotype redux. How far can the reach of genes extend in manipulating the environment of an organism?". EMBO Reports. 10 (3): 212''215. doi:10.1038/embor.2009.18. PMC 2658563 . PMID 19255576. ^ Mahner M, Kary M (May 1997). "What exactly are genomes, genotypes and phenotypes? And what about phenomes?". Journal of Theoretical Biology. 186 (1): 55''63. Bibcode:1997JThBi.186...55M. doi:10.1006/jtbi.1996.0335. PMID 9176637. ^ Varki A, Wills C, Perlmutter D, Woodruff D, Gage F, Moore J, et al. (October 1998). "Great Ape Phenome Project?". Science. 282 (5387): 239''240. Bibcode:1998Sci...282..239V. doi:10.1126/science.282.5387.239d. PMID 9841385. S2CID 5837659. ^ Houle D, Govindaraju DR, Omholt S (December 2010). "Phenomics: the next challenge". Nature Reviews. Genetics. 11 (12): 855''866. doi:10.1038/nrg2897. PMID 21085204. S2CID 14752610. ^ Freimer N, Sabatti C (May 2003). "The human phenome project". Nature Genetics. 34 (1): 15''21. doi:10.1038/ng0503-15. PMID 12721547. S2CID 31510391. ^ Rahman H, Ramanathan V, Jagadeeshselvam N, Ramasamy S, Rajendran S, Ramachandran M, et al. (2015-01-01). "Phenomics: technologies and applications in plant and agriculture.". In Barh D, Khan MS, Davies E (eds.). PlantOmics: The Omics of Plant Science. New Delhi: Springer. pp. 385''411. doi:10.1007/978-81-322-2172-2_13. ISBN 9788132221715. ^ Furbank RT, Tester M (December 2011). "Phenomics--technologies to relieve the phenotyping bottleneck". Trends in Plant Science. 16 (12): 635''644. doi:10.1016/j.tplants.2011.09.005. PMID 22074787. ^ a b Monte AA, Brocker C, Nebert DW, Gonzalez FJ, Thompson DC, Vasiliou V (September 2014). "Improved drug therapy: triangulating phenomics with genomics and metabolomics". Human Genomics. 8 (1): 16. doi:10.1186/s40246-014-0016-9. PMC 4445687 . PMID 25181945. ^ Amsterdam A, Burgess S, Golling G, Chen W, Sun Z, Townsend K, et al. (October 1999). "A large-scale insertional mutagenesis screen in zebrafish". Genes & Development. 13 (20): 2713''2724. doi:10.1101/gad.13.20.2713. PMC 317115 . PMID 10541557. ^ Vitaterna MH, Pinto LH, Takahashi JS (April 2006). "Large-scale mutagenesis and phenotypic screens for the nervous system and behavior in mice". Trends in Neurosciences. 29 (4): 233''240. doi:10.1016/j.tins.2006.02.006. PMC 3761413 . PMID 16519954. ^ a b Michod R (1983) Population biology of the first replicators: On the origin of the genotype, phenotype and organism. Am Zool 23:5''14 External links [ edit ] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Phenotypes .Mouse Phenome DatabaseHuman Phenotype OntologyEurophenome: Access to raw and annotated mouse phenotype data"Wilhelm Johannsen's Genotype-Phenotype Distinction" by E. Peirson at the Embryo Project Encyclopedia
  • 7 Things You Need To Know About Dr. Neely Fuller, Mentor Of Dr. Frances Cress Welsing
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    • 7 Things You Need To Know About Dr. Neely Fuller, Mentor Of Dr. Frances Cress Welsing. Photo: TwitterDoes the name Dr. Neely Fuller Jr. ring a bell? What about Dr. Frances Cress Welsing? Both intellectual giants, the former mentored the latter and is respected among scholars of racism and inequality. Here are 7 things you need to know about Dr. Neely Fuller Jr.
    • Outspoken advocate against racism and white supremacyBorn Oct. 6, 1929 at the height of the Great Depression, Fuller served in both the army and air force. During his time in service, the things he witnessed at home and abroad led him to begin studying white supremacy.
    • He has spent his life studying and explaining the world system of racism as well as offering insight into how it can be countered and replaced with a true system of justice in which everyone is treated fairly and those who need the most help get it.
    • Listen to GHOGH with Jamarlin Martin | Episode 73: Jamarlin Martin
    • Jamarlin makes the case for why this is a multi-factor rebellion vs. just protests about George Floyd. He discusses the Democratic Party's sneaky relationship with the police in cities and states under Dem control, and why Joe Biden is a cop and the Steve Jobs of mass incarceration.
    • ''Racism has done more to promote non-justice than any other socio-material system known to have been produced or supported by the people of the known universe,'' Fuller wrote on his website entitled Produce Justice.
    • ''The fear, frustration, malice, and confusion caused by racism, retards or prevents all constructive activity between the people of the known universe,'' he continued. ''The only form of functional racism that exists among the people of the known universe is ''white supremacy.''
    • Bestselling author and radio hostFuller has authored three books over the course of his career. There is an original book and text book entitled ''The United Independent Compensatory Code/System/Concept: A Counter- Racist Code'' and a word guide of the same name that can be purchased separately.
    • Fuller also hosts a radio show, podcast and has a YouTube channel under the Produce Justice banner where he discusses his work and positions.
    • He believes there is no hope for Black-white relationships until racism is abolished In a recorded interview, Fuller has said relationships between Black and white people could never work under a system of white supremacy.
    • ''All of the arrangements between Black people, non-white people on this planet, in all areas of activity, 24-hours a day comes under the banner of, you might say, a tragic arrangement,'' Fuller said. ''And that breaks down into three categories: tacky, trashy, terroristic '-- and it doesn't get any better than tacky. '... You're not gonna get anything better than that. You're not going to get what we call a quality relationship ever under the system of racism. You can only get that quality relationship if you eliminate racism, meaning white supremacy and replace it with a better system.''
    • He believes racism and white supremacy are the underlying root cause of all social illsOne of Fuller's most famous quotes is, ''If you do not understand white supremacy '' what it is and how it works '' everything else that you understand will only confuse you.''
    • It is the premise much of his work is based on. On his website, Fuller said he has ''been a long-time victim of and servant to racism (white supremacy) in all areas of activity,'' like millions of others.
    • He added that his ''experiences, observations, and/or studies'' led him to believe several fundamental things including: ''No major problem that exists between the people of the known universe can be eliminated until racism is eliminated.'' He also believes, ''As long as racism exists, anything said or done by people that is not intended to help eliminate racism and to help produce justice, is a waste of time and energy.''
    • Focuses on 9 areas of 'people activity' permeated by racism and white supremacyFuller believes racism and white supremacy operate across nine major areas of people activity, according to his website, Produce Justice. They include economics, education, entertainment, labor, law, politics, religion, sex and war/counter-war.
    • On his website, Fuller said most people's problems stem from these areas. He explains it this way:
    • ''The overall effect of this system of world government (correctly called 'The System of White Supremacy' and/or 'Racism') is to do great, non-just, and completely unnecessary harm to all so-called 'non-white people' in all of the aforementioned 'The Nine Major Areas of (People) Activity'. If you are a victim of 'The System of White Supremacy/Racism,' it is constructively logical that you seek to know and understand exactly what White Supremacy is, and how it works, in all of 'The Nine Major Areas of (People) Activity' as they are presented and defined in the textbook(s) 'The United-Independent Compensatory Code/System/Concept.'''
    • He mentored Dr. Frances Cress WelsingDr. Frances Cress Welsing was a well-respected psychiatrist whose work surrounding racism and white supremacy made her a polarizing figure among hip-hop artists and civil rights activists.
    • ''I was looking for the answer to racism and I remember attending a Black Power Committee meeting,'' Welsing recalled on her first time meeting Fuller in a clip on YouTube. ''After the meeting, people were sitting in somebody's apartment eating African food and a gentleman was on the other side of the room and '... mind you I'm looking for further answers to racism, and I hear this gentleman (Neely Fuller) over there in the other corner saying racism is a system.''
    • The two went on to develop a mentor-mentee relationship.
    • He did not endorse the idea of Black supremacyWhile Fuller is a major advocate for abolishing racism and white supremacy, he is against Black supremacy, believing both are destructive to humanity.
    • ''If you say white supremacy, that means you don't have anything such thing as Black supremacy. That's impossible. It's either one or the other and Black people shouldn't aspire to be Black supremacists,'' Fuller said. ''That would be just the same old form of mistreatment, but it would be done in blackface. We should replace the system of white supremacy with a system of justice which means guaranteeing that no person is mistreated and guaranteeing the person that needs help the most gets the most constructive help.''
  • Lynching - Wikipedia
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    • Killing carried out by a mob or vigilante group
    • An African-American man lynched from a tree. His face is partially concealed by the angle of the photograph and his hat.
    • Lynching is an extrajudicial killing by a group. It is most often used to characterize informal public executions by a mob in order to punish an alleged transgressor, punish a convicted transgressor, or intimidate. It can also be an extreme form of informal group social control, and it is often conducted with the display of a public spectacle (often in the form of hanging) for maximum intimidation.[1] Instances of lynchings and similar mob violence can be found in every society.[2][3][4]
    • In the United States, where the word for "lynching" likely originated, lynchings of African Americans became frequent in the South during the period after the Reconstruction era, especially during the nadir of American race relations.[5]
    • Etymology [ edit ] The origins of the word lynch are obscure, but it likely originated during the American Revolution. The verb comes from the phrase Lynch Law, a term for a punishment without trial. Two Americans during this era are generally credited for coining the phrase: Charles Lynch (1736''1796) and William Lynch (1742''1820), both of whom lived in Virginia in the 1780s. Charles Lynch is more likely to have coined the phrase, as he was known to have used the term in 1782, while William Lynch is not known to have used the term until much later. There is no evidence that death was imposed as a punishment by either of the two men.[6] In 1782, Charles Lynch wrote that his assistant had administered Lynch's law to Tories "for Dealing with the negroes &c".[7]
    • Charles Lynch was a Virginia Quaker,[8]:'Š23ff'Š planter, and Patriot who headed a county court in Virginia which imprisoned Loyalists during the American revolutionary war, occasionally imprisoning them for up to a year. Although he lacked proper jurisdiction for detaining these persons, he claimed this right by arguing wartime necessity. Subsequently, Lynch prevailed upon his friends in the Congress of the Confederation to pass a law that exonerated him and his associates from wrongdoing. Lynch was concerned that he might face legal action from one or more of those he had imprisoned, notwithstanding that the Patriots had won the war. This action by the Congress provoked controversy, and it was in connection with this that the term Lynch law, meaning the assumption of extrajudicial authority, came into common parlance in the United States. Lynch was not accused of racist bias. He acquitted Black people accused of murder on three occasions.[9][10] He was accused, however, of ethnic prejudice in his abuse of Welsh miners.[7]
    • William Lynch from Virginia claimed that the phrase was first used in a 1780 compact signed by him and his neighbors in Pittsylvania County. While Edgar Allan Poe claimed that he found this document, it was probably a hoax.[citation needed ]
    • A 17th-century legend of James Lynch fitz Stephen, who was Mayor of Galway in Ireland in 1493, says that when his son was convicted of murder, the mayor hanged him from his own house.[11] The story was proposed by 1904 as the origin of the word "lynch".[12] It is dismissed by etymologists, both because of the distance in time and place from the alleged event to the word's later emergence, and because the incident did not constitute a lynching in the modern sense.[12][6]
    • The archaic verb linch, to beat severely with a pliable instrument, to chastise or to maltreat, has been proposed as the etymological source; but there is no evidence that the word has survived into modern times, so this claim is also considered implausible.[8]:'Š16'Š
    • History [ edit ] Every society has had forms of extrajudicial punishments, including murder. The legal and cultural antecedents of American lynching were carried across the Atlantic by migrants from the British Isles to colonial North America.[13] Collective violence was a familiar aspect of the early American legal landscape, with group violence in colonial America being usually nonlethal in intention and result. In the seventeenth century, in the context of the Wars of the Three Kingdoms and unsettled social and political conditions in the American colonies, lynchings became a frequent form of "mob justice" when the authorities were perceived as untrustworthy.[13] In the United States, during the decades after the Civil War, African Americans were the main victims of racial lynching, but in the American Southwest, Mexican Americans were also the targets of lynching as well.[14]
    • Lynching attacks on African Americans, especially in the South, increased dramatically in the aftermath of Reconstruction, after slavery had been abolished and Black people gained the right to vote. The peak of lynchings occurred in 1892, after White Southern Democrats had regained control of state legislatures. Many incidents were related to economic troubles and competition. At the turn of the 20th century, southern states passed new constitutions or legislation which effectively disenfranchised most Black people and many Poor Whites, established segregation of public facilities by race, and separated Black people from common public life and facilities through Jim Crow laws. Nearly 4,800 Americans, including 3,446 African Americans, were lynched in the United States between 1882 and 1968 in what has been termed by historian Thomas E. Smith as a form of "colonial violence".[15][16]
    • United States [ edit ] Bodies of three men lynched in
    • Georgia, May 1892
    • Lynchings took place in the United States both before and after the American Civil War, most commonly in Southern states and Western frontier settlements and most frequently in the late 19th century. They were often performed without due process of law by self-appointed commissions, mobs, or vigilantes as a form of punishment for presumed criminal offences.[17] From 1883 to 1941 there were 4,467 victims of lynching. Of these, 4,027 were male, and 99 female. 341 were of unknown gender, but are assumed to be likely male. In terms of ethnicity; 3,265 were black, 1,082 were white, 71 were Mexican or of Mexican descent, 38 were American Indian, ten were Chinese, and one was Japanese.[18] (See: Interactive map of lynchings in the United States, 1883-1941)
    • Leo Frank's lynching on the morning of August 17, 1915. Judge Morris, who organized the crowd after the lynching, is on the far right in a straw hat.
    • [19]Europe [ edit ] In Liverpool, a series of race riots broke out in 1919 after the end of the First World War between White and Black sailors, many of whom were demobilized. After a Black sailor had been stabbed by two White sailors in a pub for refusing to give them a cigarette, his friends attacked them the next day in revenge, wounding a policeman in the process. The police responded by launching raids on lodging houses in primarily Black neighborhoods, with casualties on both sides. A White lynch mob gathered outside the houses during the raids and chased a Black sailor, Charles Wootton into the Mersey River where he drowned.[20] The Charles Wootton College in Liverpool has been named in his memory.[21]
    • In 1944, Wolfgang Rosterg, a German prisoner of war known to be unsympathetic to the Nazi regime, was lynched by other German prisoners of war in Cultybraggan Camp, a prisoner-of-war camp in Comrie, Scotland. At the end of the Second World War, five of the perpetrators were hanged at Pentonville Prison '' the largest multiple execution in 20th-century Britain.[22][better source needed ]
    • The situation is less clear with regards to reported "lynchings" in Germany. Nazi propaganda sometimes tried to depict state-sponsored violence as spontaneous lynchings. The most notorious instance of this was "Kristallnacht", which the government portrayed as the result of "popular wrath" against Jews, but it was carried out in an organised and planned manner, mainly by SS men. Similarly, the approximately 150 confirmed murders of surviving crew members of crashed Allied aircraft in revenge for what Nazi propaganda called "Anglo-American bombing terror" were chiefly conducted by German officials and members of the police or the Gestapo, although civilians sometimes took part in them. The execution of enemy aircrew without trial in some cases had been ordered by Hitler personally in May 1944. Publicly it was announced that enemy pilots would no longer be protected from "public wrath". There were secret orders issued that prohibited policemen and soldiers from interfering in favor of the enemy in conflicts between civilians and Allied forces, or prosecuting civilians who engaged in such acts.[23][24] In summary,
    • "the assaults on crashed allied aviators were not typically acts of revenge for the bombing raids which immediately preceded them. [...] The perpetrators of these assaults were usually National Socialist officials, who did not hesitate to get their own hands dirty. The lynching murder in the sense of self-mobilizing communities or urban quarters was the exception."[25]On 19 March 1988, two plain-clothes British soldiers drove straight towards a Provisional IRA funeral procession near Milltown Cemetery in Andersonstown, Belfast. The men were mistaken for Special Air Service members, surrounded by the crowd, dragged out, beaten, kicked, stabbed and eventually shot dead at a waste ground.[26]
    • Lynching of members of the Turkish Armed Forces occurred in the aftermath of the 2016 Turkish coup d'(C)tat attempt.[27]
    • Latin America [ edit ] Mexico [ edit ] Lynchings are a persistent form of extralegal violence in post-Revolutionary Mexico.[28]
    • On September 14, 1968, five employees from the Autonomous University of Puebla were lynched in the village of San Miguel Canoa, in the state of Puebla, after Enrique Meza P(C)rez, the local priest, incited the villagers to murder the employees, who he believed were communists. The five victims intended to enjoy their holiday climbing La Malinche, a nearby mountain, but they had to stay in the village due to adverse weather conditions. Two of the employees, and the owner of the house where they were staying for the night, were killed; the three survivors sustained serious injuries, including finger amputations.[29] The alleged main instigators were not prosecuted. The few arrested were released after no evidence was found against them.[30]
    • On November 23, 2004, in the Tlhuac lynching,[31] three Mexican undercover federal agents investigating a narcotics-related crime were lynched in the town of San Juan Ixtayopan (Mexico City) by an angry crowd who saw them taking photographs and suspected that they were trying to abduct children from a primary school. The agents immediately identified themselves but they were held and beaten for several hours before two of them were killed and set on fire. The incident was covered by the media almost from the beginning, including their pleas for help and their murder.
    • By the time police rescue units arrived, two of the agents were reduced to charred corpses and the third was seriously injured. Authorities suspect that the lynching was provoked by the persons who were being investigated.Both local and federal authorities had abandoned the agents, saying that the town was too far away for them to try to intervene. Some officials said they would provoke a massacre if the authorities tried to rescue the men from the mob.
    • Brazil [ edit ] According to The Wall Street Journal, "Over the past 60 years, as many as 1.5 million Brazilians have taken part in lynchings...In Brazil, mobs now kill'--or try to kill'--more than one suspected lawbreaker a day, according to University of S£o Paulo sociologist Jos(C) de Souza Martins, Brazil's leading expert on lynchings."[32]
    • Bolivia [ edit ] The lynching of Bolivian President Gualberto Villarroel in Plaza Murillo, La Paz, on July 21, 1946
    • On July 21, 1946, a rioting mob of striking students, teachers, and miners in the Bolivian capital of La Paz lynched various government officials including President Gualberto Villarroel himself. After storming the government palace, members of the mob shot the president and threw his body out of a window. In the Plaza Murillo outside the government palace, Villarroel's body was lynched, his clothes torn, and his almost naked corpse hung on a lamp post. Other victims of the lynching included Director General of Transit Max Toledo, Captain Waldo Ballivin, Luis Ur­a de la Oliva, the president's secretary, and the journalist Roberto Hinojosa.[33]
    • Guatemala [ edit ] In May 2015, a sixteen-year-old girl was lynched in Rio Bravo by a vigilante mob after being accused of involvement in the killing of a taxi driver earlier in the month.[34]
    • Dominican Republic [ edit ] Extrajudicial punishment, including lynching, of alleged criminals who committed various crimes, ranging from theft to murder, has some endorsement in Dominican society. According to a 2014 Latinobar"metro survey, the Dominican Republic had the highest rate of acceptance in Latin America of such unlawful measures.[35] These issues are particularly evident in the Northern Region.[36]
    • Haiti [ edit ] After the 2010 earthquake the slow distribution of relief supplies and the large number of affected people created concerns about civil unrest, marked by looting and mob justice against suspected looters.[37][38][39][40][41] In a 2010 news story, CNN reported, "At least 45 people, most of them Vodou priests, have been lynched in Haiti since the beginning of the cholera epidemic by angry mobs blaming them for the spread of the disease, officials said.[42]
    • South Africa [ edit ] The practice of whipping and necklacing offenders and political opponents evolved in the 1980s during the apartheid era in South Africa. Residents of Black townships formed "people's courts" and used whip lashings and deaths by necklacing in order to terrorize fellow Blacks who were seen as collaborators with the government. Necklacing is the torture and execution of a victim by igniting a kerosene-filled rubber tire that has been forced around the victim's chest and arms. Necklacing was used to punish victims who were alleged to be traitors to the Black liberation movement along with their relatives and associates. Sometimes the "people's courts" made mistakes, or they used the system to punish those whom the anti-Apartheid movement's leaders opposed.[43] A tremendous controversy arose when the practice was endorsed by Winnie Mandela, then the wife of the then-imprisoned Nelson Mandela and a senior member of the African National Congress.[44]
    • More recently, drug dealers and other gang members have been lynched by People Against Gangsterism and Drugs, a vigilante organization.
    • Nigeria [ edit ] The practice of extrajudicial punishments, including lynching, is referred to as 'jungle justice' in Nigeria.[45] The practice is widespread and "an established part of Nigerian society", predating the existence of the police.[45] Exacted punishments vary between a "muddy treatment", that is, being made to roll in the mud for hours[46] and severe beatings followed by necklacing.[47] The case of the Aluu four sparked national outrage. The absence of a functioning judicial system and law enforcement, coupled with corruption are blamed for the continuing existence of the practice.[48][49]
    • Kenya [ edit ] There are frequent lynchings in Kenya, often as a mob executes a person they feel is guilty.[50] McKee (2021) is written largely with reference to a Kenya Lynchings Database that includes reports of over 2,900 lynched persons for Kenya for the years ca. 1980-2021.[51] That number, however, is just a fraction of the total for that period, which may well exceed 10,000.[52]
    • Palestine and Israel [ edit ] Palestinian lynch mobs have murdered Palestinians suspected of collaborating with Israel.[53][54][55] According to a Human Rights Watch report from 2001:
    • During the First Intifada, before the PA was established, hundreds of alleged collaborators were lynched, tortured or killed, at times with the implied support of the PLO. Street killings of alleged collaborators continue into the current intifada ... but at much fewer numbers.[56]
    • On October 12, 2000, the Ramallah lynching took place. This happened at the el-Bireh police station, where a Palestinian crowd killed and mutilated the bodies of two Israel Defense Forces reservists, Vadim Norzhich (Nurzhitz) and Yosef "Yossi" Avrahami,[a] who had accidentally[57] entered the Palestinian Authority-controlled city of Ramallah in the West Bank and were taken into custody by Palestinian Authority policemen. The Israeli reservists were beaten and stabbed. At this point, a Palestinian (later identified as Aziz Salha), appeared at the window, displaying his blood-soaked hands to the crowd, which erupted into cheers. The crowd clapped and cheered as one of the soldier's bodies was then thrown out the window and stamped and beaten by the frenzied crowd. One of the two was shot, set on fire, and his head beaten to a pulp.[58] Soon after, the crowd dragged the two mutilated bodies to Al-Manara Square in the city center and began an impromptu victory celebration.[59][60][61][62] Police officers proceeded to try and confiscate footage from reporters.[59]
    • In July 2014, three Israeli men kidnapped Mohammed Abu Khdeir, a 16-year-old Palestinian, while he was waiting for dawn Ramadan prayers outside of his house in Eastern Jerusalem. They forced him into their car and beat him while driving to the deserted forest area near Jerusalem, then poured gasoline on him and set him on fire after he was tortured and beaten many times.[63] On November 30, 2015, the two minors involved were found guilty of Khdeirs' murder, and were respectively sentenced to life and 21 years imprisonment on February 4. On May 3, 2016, Ben David was sentenced to life in prison and an additional 20 years.[64]
    • On October 18, 2015, an Eritrean asylum seeker, Haftom Zarhum, was lynched by a mob of vengeful Israeli soldiers in Be'er Sheva's central bus station. Israeli security forces misidentified Haftom as the person who shot an Israeli police bus and shot him. Moments after, other security forces joined shooting Haftom when he was bleeding on the ground. Then, a soldier hit him with a bench nearby when two other soldiers approached the victim then forcefully kicked his head and upper body. Another soldier threw a bench over him to prevent his movement. At that moment a bystander pushed the bench away but the security forces put back the chair and kicked the victim again and pushed the stopper away. Israeli medical forces did not evacuate the victim until eighteen minutes after the first shooting although the victim received 8 shots.[65] In January 2016 four security forces were charged in connection with the lynching.[66] The Israeli civilian who was involved in lynching the Eritrean civilian was sentenced to 100 days community service and 2,000 shekels.[67]
    • In August 2012, seven Israeli youths were arrested in Jerusalem for what several witnesses described as an attempted lynching of several Palestinian teenagers. The Palestinians received medical treatment and judicial support from Israeli facilities.[68]
    • Afghanistan [ edit ] On March 19, 2015 in Kabul, Afghanistan a large crowd beat a young woman, Farkhunda, after she was accused by a local mullah of burning a copy of the Quran, Islam's holy book. Shortly afterwards, a crowd attacked her and beat her to death. They set the young woman's body on fire on the shore of the Kabul River. Although it was unclear whether the woman had burned the Quran, police officials and the clerics in the city defended the lynching, saying that the crowd had a right to defend their faith at all costs. They warned the government against taking action against those who had participated in the lynching.[69] The event was filmed and shared on social media.[70] The day after the incident six men were arrested on accusations of lynching, and Afghanistan's government promised to continue the investigation.[71] On March 22, 2015, Farkhunda's burial was attended by a large crowd of Kabul residents; many demanded that she receive justice. A group of Afghan women carried her coffin, chanted slogans and demanded justice.[72]
    • India [ edit ] Indian Whatsapp lynchings in 2017''18
    • In India, lynchings may reflect internal tensions between ethnic communities. Communities sometimes lynch individuals who are accused or suspected of committing crimes. An example is the 2006 Kherlanji massacre, where four members of a Dalit family were slaughtered by Kunbi caste members in Khairlanji, a village in the Bhandara district of Maharashtra. Though this incident was reported as an example of "upper" caste violence against members of a "lower" caste, it was found to be an example of communal violence. It was retaliation against a family who had opposed the Eminent Domain seizure of its fields so a road could be built that would have benefitted the group who murdered them.[73] The women of the family were paraded naked in public, before being mutilated and murdered. Sociologists and social scientists reject attributing racial discrimination to the caste system and attributed this and similar events to intra-racial ethno-cultural conflicts.[74][75]
    • There have been numerous lynchings in relation to cow vigilante violence in India since 2014,[76] mainly involving Hindu mobs lynching Indian Muslims[77][78] and Dalits.[79][80] Some notable examples of such attacks include the 2015 Dadri mob lynching,[81] the 2016 Jharkhand mob lynching,[82][83][84] 2017 Alwar mob lynching.[85][86] and the 2019 Jharkhand mob lynching. Mob lynching was reported for the third time in Alwar in July 2018, when a group of cow vigilantes killed a 31 year old Muslim man named Rakbar Khan.[87]
    • In the 2015 Dimapur mob lynching, a mob in Dimapur, Nagaland, broke into a jail and lynched an accused rapist on March 5, 2015 while he was awaiting trial.[88]
    • Since May 2017, when seven people were lynched in Jharkhand, India has experienced another spate of mob-related violence and killings known as the Indian WhatsApp lynchings following the spread of fake news, primarily relating to child-abduction and organ harvesting, via the Whatsapp message service.[89]
    • In 2018 Junior civil aviation minister of India had garlanded and honoured eight men who had been convicted in the lynching of trader Alimuddin Ansari in Ramgarh in June 2017 in a case of alleged cow vigilantism.[90]
    • In June 2019, the Jharkhand mob lynching triggered widespread protests. The victim was a Muslim man and was allegedly forced to chant Hindu slogans, including "Jai Shri Ram".[91][92]
    • In July 2019, three men were beaten to death and lynched by mobs in Chhapra district of Bihar, on a minor case of theft of cattle.[93]
    • Four civilians have been lynched by villagers in Jharkhand on witchcraft suspicion, after panchayat decided that they are practicing black magic.[94]
    • In popular culture [ edit ] "Strange Fruit" [ edit ] "Strange Fruit", a 1937 song composed by Abel Meeropol, a Jewish schoolteacher from New York inspired by the photograph of a lynching in Marion, Indiana. Meeropol said that the photograph "haunted me for days".[95] It was published as a poem in the New York Teacher and later in the magazine New Masses, in both cases under the pseudonym Lewis Allan. The poem was set to music, also by Meeropol, and the song was performed and popularized by Billie Holiday.[96] The song reached 16th place on the charts in July 1939.[citation needed ] The song has been performed by many other singers, including Nina Simone.
    • The Hateful Eight [ edit ] The 2015 film The Hateful Eight, set in post Civil War America, depicts a detailed and closely focused lynching of a White woman in the finale, prompting some debate about whether it is a political commentary on racism and hate in America or if it was simply created for entertainment value.[97][98]
    • Michiel de Ruyter [ edit ] Contemprary painting of the murder of the de Witts
    • Michiel de Ruyter, English version Admiral. A Dutch biographical film depicting the 1672 assassination of Dutch politicians Johan de Witt and Cornelis de Witt by a carefully organised lynch mob in the Netherlands.[99][100]
    • See also [ edit ] Notes [ edit ] ^ Wood, Amy Louise (2009). Rough Justice: Lynching and American Society, 1874''1947. North Carolina University Press. ISBN 9780807878118. OCLC 701719807. ^ Berg, Manfred; Wendt, Simon (2011). Globalizing Lynching History: Vigilantism and Extralegal Punishment from an International Perspective . Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-230-11588-0. ^ Huggins, Martha Knisely (1991). Vigilantism and the state in modern Latin America : essays on extralegal violence. New York: Praeger. ISBN 0275934764. OCLC 22984858. ^ Thurston, Robert W. (2011). Lynching : American mob murder in global perspective. Burlington, VT: Ashgate. ISBN 9781409409083. OCLC 657223792. ^ Hill, Karlos K. (February 28, 2016). "21st Century Lynchings?". Cambridge Blog. Cambridge University Press . Retrieved July 3, 2020 . ^ a b Michael Quinion (December 20, 2008). "Lynch". World Wide Words . Retrieved August 13, 2014 . ^ a b Waldrep, Christopher (2006). "Lynching and Mob Violence". In Finkelman, Paul (ed.). Encyclopedia of African American History 1619''1895. Vol. 2. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 308. ISBN 9780195167771. ^ a b Cutler, James Elbert (1905). Lynch-law: An Investigation Into the History of Lynching in the United States. Longmans Green and Co. ^ "The Atlantic Monthly Volume 0088 Issue 530 (Dec 1901)". Digital.library.cornell.edu . Retrieved July 27, 2013 . ^ University of Chicago, Webster's Revised Unabridged Dictionary (1913 + 1828) Archived May 23, 2017, at the Wayback Machine ^ Mitchell, James (1966''1971). "Mayor Lynch of Galway: A Review of the Tradition". Journal of the Galway Archaeological and Historical Society. 32: 5''72. JSTOR 25535428. ^ a b Matthews, Albert (October 1904). "The Term Lynch Law". Modern Philology. 2 (2): 173''195 : 183''184. doi:10.1086/386635. JSTOR 432538. S2CID 159492304. ^ a b Pfeifer, Michael J. (2011). The Roots of Rough Justice : Origins of American Lynching. Urbana, Illinois: University of Illinois Press. ISBN 9780252093098. OCLC 724308353. ^ Carrigan, William D.; Clive Webb (2013). Forgotten Dead : Mob Violence against Mexicans in the United States, 1848''1928. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780195320350. OCLC 815043342. ^ "Lynchings: By State and Race, 1882''1968". University of Missouri-Kansas City School of Law. Archived from the original on June 29, 2010 . Retrieved July 26, 2010 . Statistics provided by the Archives at Tuskegee Institute. ^ Smith, Thomas E. (Fall 2007). "The Discourse of Violence: Transatlantic Narratives of Lynching during High Imperialism". Journal of Colonialism and Colonial History. Johns Hopkins University Press. 8 (2). doi:10.1353/cch.2007.0040. S2CID 162330208. ^ The Guardian, 'Jim Crow lynchings more widespread than previously thought', Lauren Gambino, February 10, 2015 ^ Seguin, Charles; Rigby, David (2019). "National Crimes: A New National Data Set of Lynchings in the United States, 1883 to 1941". Socius: Sociological Research for a Dynamic World. 5: 237802311984178. doi:10.1177/2378023119841780. ISSN 2378-0231. ^ "The lynching of Leo Frank". leofranklynchers.com. Archived from the original on August 15, 2000 . Retrieved August 22, 2010 . ^ "The roots of racism in city of many cultures". Liverpool Echo. August 3, 2005 . Retrieved March 3, 2021 . ^ Brown, Jacqueline Nassy (2005). Dropping Anchor, Setting Sail: Geographies of Race in Black Liverpool. Princeton University Press, pp. 21, 23, 144. ^ "Execution at Camp 21". Caledonia.tv. Archived from the original on May 24, 2007. ^ "Hamm 1944". polizeihistorischesammlung-paul.de. ^ Germany, SPIEGEL ONLINE, Hamburg (November 19, 2001). "KRIEGSVERBRECHEN: Systematischer Mord - DER SPIEGEL 47/2001". Spiegel Online. 47 . Retrieved September 3, 2017 . ^ Grimm, Barbara: "Lynchmorde an alliierten Fliegern im Zweiten Weltkrieg". In: Dietmar S¼Ÿ (Hrsg.): Deutschland im Luftkrieg. Geschichte und Erinnerung. Oldenbourg Wissenschaftsverlag, Munich 2007, ISBN 3-486-58084-1, pp. 71''84. p. 83. "Die 'bergriffe auf abgest¼rzte alliierte Flieger waren im Regelfall keine Racheakte f¼r unmittelbar vorangegangene Bombenangriffe. [...] T¤ter waren in der Regel nationalsozialistische Funktionstr¤ger, die keine Scheu davor hatten, selbst Hand anzulegen. Der Lynchmord im Sinne sich selbstmobilisierender Kommunen und Stadtviertel war dagegen die Ausnahme." ^ Ware, John. "Guns, grenades and lynchings: Revisiting the funeral murders". The Irish Times . Retrieved December 21, 2021 . ^ "Europe's Flashpoints". Close Up '-- The Current Affairs Documentary. Episode 2. 2018. Event occurs at 2:12. Deutsche Welle TV. Archived from the original on August 5, 2018. Public anger erupted. Soldiers were lynched in the streets including young recruits proven to have been deceived by their generals about the true intentions of the attack. Alt URL ^ Kloppe-Santamar­a, Gema (2020). In the vortex of violence: lynching, extralegal justice, and the state in post-revolutionary Mexico. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-97532-3. OCLC 1145910776. ^ Pierre, Beaucage (June 1, 2010). "Representaciones y conductas. Un repertorio de las violencias entre los nahuas de la Sierra Norte de Puebla". Trace. Travaux et recherches dans les Am(C)riques du Centre (in Spanish) (57): 9''32. ISSN 0185-6286 . Retrieved October 1, 2018 . ^ Daniel Hernndez. "A 45 a±os del linchamiento en Canoa, nunca se hizo justicia". YouTube (in Spanish). Archived from the original on October 7, 2013. ^ Niels A. Uildriks (2009), Policing Insecurity: Police Reform, Security, and Human Rights in Latin America Policing Insecurity: Police Reform, Security, and Human Rights in Latin America]. Rowman & Littlefield, p. 201. ^ "In Latin America, Awash in Crime, Citizens Impose Their Own Brutal Justice". The Wall Street Journal. December 6, 2018. ^ capuchainformativa_ecmn0t (July 22, 2020). "Bolivia '--‚ As­ cay" Villarroel: Miradas de la revuelta del 21 de julio de 1946". Capucha Informativa (in Spanish) . Retrieved November 29, 2020 . ^ Annie Rose Ramos; Catherine E. Shoichet; Richard Beltran (May 27, 2015). "Video of mob burning teen in Guatemala spurs outrage". Cnn.com . Retrieved September 3, 2017 . ^ Amnesty International | Working to Protect Human Rights Archived August 10, 2007, at the Wayback Machine ^ Santana, Antonio (June 9, 2012). "Linchamientos en el norte de la Repºblica Dominicana alarman a las autoridades". Lainformacion.com (in Spanish). Santiago. EFE. Archived from the original on March 4, 2016 . Retrieved September 9, 2015 . ^ "Mob justice in Haiti". thestar.com. January 17, 2010. ^ Romero, Simon; Lacey, Marc (January 17, 2010). "Looting Flares Where Authority Breaks Down". The New York Times . Retrieved September 3, 2017 . ^ "Login". Timesonline.co.uk. ^ Rory Carroll (January 16, 2010). "Looters roam Port-au-Prince as earthquake death toll estimate climbs". The Guardian. ^ Sherwell, Philip; Colin Freeman (January 16, 2010). "Haiti earthquake: UN says worst disaster ever dealt with". Telegraph.co.uk. Archived from the original on September 12, 2012 . Retrieved January 17, 2010 . ^ Valme, Jean M. (December 24, 2010). "Officials: 45 people lynched in Haiti amid cholera fears". CNN . Retrieved March 22, 2012 . ^ "4. Background: The Black Struggle For Political Power: Major Forces in the Conflict". The Killings in South Africa: The Role of the Security Forces and the Response of the State. Human Rights Watch. January 8, 1991. ISBN 0-929692-76-4 . Retrieved November 6, 2006 . ^ Beresford, David (January 27, 1989). "Row over 'mother of the nation' Winnie Mandela". The Guardian. Guardian Newspapers Limited. Archived from the original on October 8, 2006 . Retrieved March 22, 2019 . ^ a b "BBC NEWS - World - Africa - Nigeria's vigilante 'jungle justice' ". News.bbc.co.uk. April 28, 2009 . Retrieved September 3, 2017 . ^ Dachen, Isaac (October 25, 2016). "Jungle Justice: Cable thief given muddy treatment in Anambra (Graphic Photos)". Pulse.ng . Retrieved September 3, 2017 . ^ "Burning 7-year-old boy to death an embarrassment to Nigeria - Annie Idibia, Mercy Johnson". Dailypost.ng. November 18, 2016 . Retrieved September 3, 2017 . ^ "Jungle Justice: A Vicious Violation Of Human Rights In Africa". Answersafrica.com. July 24, 2015 . Retrieved September 3, 2017 . ^ Luke, Nneka (July 26, 2016). "When the mob rules: jungle justice in Africa". Deutsche Welle . Retrieved September 3, 2017 . ^ McKee, Robert. 2021. Lynchings in Modern Kenya A Continuing Human Rights Scandal. Leanpub. ^ "Kenya Lynchings Database" . gialedu.sharepoint.com. ^ McKee (2021). ^ Be'er, Yizhar & 'Abdel-Jawad, Saleh (January 1994), "Collaborators in the Occupied Territories: Human Rights Abuses and Violations" Archived July 15, 2004, at the Wayback Machine (Microsoft Word document), B'Tselem '' The Israeli Information Center for Human Rights in the Occupied Territories. Retrieved September 14, 2009. Also . ^ Huggler, Justin & Ghazali, Sa'id (October 24, 2003), "Palestinian collaborators executed", The Independent, reproduced on fromoccupiedpalestine.org. Retrieved September 14, 2009. ^ Goldenberg, Suzanne (March 15, 2002), " 'Spies' lynched as Zinni flies in", The Guardian. Retrieved September 14, 2009. ^ "Balancing Security and Human Rights During the Intifada", Justice Undermined: Balancing Security and Human Rights in the Palestinian Justice System, Human Rights Watch, November 2001, Vol. 13, No. 4 (E). ^ Zitun, Yoav; Levy, Elior (March 30, 2017). "2000 Ramallah lynch terrorist released from prison". Ynetnews. ^ " 'I'll have nightmares for the rest of my life,' photographer says". Chicago Sun-Tribune. October 22, 2000. Archived from the original on May 26, 2015 . Retrieved June 7, 2018 . I got out of the car to see what was happening and saw that they were dragging something behind them. Within moments they were in front of me and, to my horror, I saw that it was a body, a man they were dragging by the feet. The lower part of his body was on fire and the upper part had been shot at, and the head beaten so badly that it was a pulp, like red jelly. ^ a b Philps, Alan (October 13, 2000). "A day of rage, revenge and bloodshed". The Daily Telegraph. London. Archived from the original on October 14, 2017 . Retrieved July 2, 2009 . ^ "Coverage of Oct 12 Lynch in Ramallah by Italian TV Station RAI". Israeli Ministry of Foreign Affairs. October 17, 2000. Archived from the original on April 18, 2010 . Retrieved July 2, 2009 . ^ "Lynch mob's brutal attack". BBC News. October 13, 2000 . Retrieved September 3, 2006 . ^ Whitaker, Raymond (October 14, 2000). "A strange voice said: I just killed your husband". The Independent. London . Retrieved October 16, 2009 . ^ Orlando Crowcroft (July 14, 2014). "Three Jewish Israelis admit kidnapping and killing Palestinian boy". The Guardian. ^ Hasson, Nir (May 3, 2016). "Abu Khdeir Murderer Sentenced to Life Imprisonment Plus 20 Years". Haaretz. ^ "Slain Eritrean Asylum Seeker Was Also Shot by Border Policeman, Police Say". Haaretz.com. October 26, 2015. ^ Tim Hume; Michael Schwartz (January 13, 2016). "Israel: 4 charged over 'lynching' of Eritrean migrant". Cnn.com. ^ "Israeli Man Involved in Lynching of Asylum Seeker Sentenced to 100 Days Community Service". Haaretz.com. July 4, 2018. ^ "Young Israelis Held in Attack on Arabs". The New York Times. August 20, 2012. ^ Shalizi, Hamid; Donati, Jessica (March 20, 2015). "Afghan cleric and others defend lynching of woman in Kabul". Reuters. Kabul . Retrieved March 22, 2019 . ^ "در Ú(C)اب٠دختر 27 Ø"اÙه به جرم تÙهین به قران به طرز ÙحشتناÚ(C)ی Ø"نگØ"ار Ù Ø"Ùزانده شد!+فیÙم". dailykhabariran.ir. Archived from the original on March 25, 2015 . Retrieved March 22, 2019 . ^ "بازداشت Û¶ تن به اتهام Ú(C)شتن Ù Ø"Ùزاندن یÚ(C) زن در Ú(C)ابÙ". BBC Persian (in Persian). BBC. March 29, 2014 . Retrieved March 22, 2019 . ^ "زنان Ú(C)اب٠پیÚ(C)ر فرخنده را به خاÚ(C) Ø"پردند". BBC Persian (in Persian). BBC. March 2, 2015 . Retrieved March 22, 2019 . ^ "Age old rivalry behind Khairlanji violence Video". Ndtv.com. November 21, 2006 . Retrieved July 27, 2013 . ^ B(C)teille, Andre. "Race and caste". World Conference Against Racism. treating caste as a form of racism is politically mischievous and worse, scientifically nonsense since there is no discernible difference in the racial characteristics between Brahmins and Scheduled Castes ^ Silverberg, James (November 1969). "Social Mobility in the Caste System in India: An Interdisciplinary Symposium". The American Journal of Sociology. 75 (3): 443''444. JSTOR 2775721. The perception of the caste system as a static and textual stratification has given way to the perception of the caste system as a more processual, empirical and contextual stratification. ^ "Cowboys and Indians; Protecting India's cows". The Economist. August 16, 2016. ^ Biswas, Soutik (July 10, 2017). "Why stopping India's vigilante killings will not be easy". BBC News. Last month Prime Minister Narendra Modi said murder in the name of cow protection is "not acceptable." ... The recent spate of lynchings in India have disturbed many. Muslim men have been murdered by Hindu mobs, ... for allegedly storing beef. ^ Kumar, Nikhil (June 29, 2017). "India's Modi Speaks Out Against Cow Vigilantes After 'Beef Lynchings' Spark Nationwide Protests". Time. ^ "India: 'Cow Protection' Spurs Vigilante Violence". Human Rights Watch. April 27, 2017. ^ Chatterji, Saubhadra (May 30, 2017). "In the name of cow: Lynching, thrashing, condemnation in three years of BJP rule". Hindustan Times . Retrieved June 29, 2017 . ^ "Indian mob kills man over beef eating rumour". Al Jazeera. October 1, 2015 . Retrieved October 4, 2015 . ^ "Muslim Cattle Traders Beaten To Death In Ranchi, Bodies Found Hanging From A Tree". Huffington Post India. ^ "Another Dadri-like incident? Two Muslims herding cattle killed in Jharkhand; five held". Zee News. March 19, 2016. ^ "5 held in Jharkhand killings, section 144 imposed in the area". News18. March 19, 2016. ^ Raj, Suhasini (April 5, 2017). "Hindu Cow Vigilantes in Rajasthan, India, Beat Muslim to Death". The New York Times. ^ "Beaten to death for being a dairy farmer". BBC News. April 8, 2017. ^ "Cow vigilantes strike in Alwar again, kill youth - Times of India". The Times of India . Retrieved July 23, 2018 . ^ "Rape accused dragged out of jail, lynched in Nagaland". The Times of India. March 5, 2015 . Retrieved March 7, 2015 . ^ "Who can stop India WhatsApp lynchings?". BBC. July 5, 2018. ^ "Union minister garlands lynchers, says 'honouring the due process of law', "The Times of India" ^ Raj, Suhasini; Nordland, Rod (June 25, 2019). "Forced to Chant Hindu Slogans, Muslim Man Is Beaten to Death in India". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331 . Retrieved February 4, 2020 . ^ "The Hindu chant that became a murder cry". BBC News. July 10, 2019 . Retrieved February 4, 2020 . ^ Bihar three men lynched, The Wire, July 20, 2019 ^ 4 killed on witchcraft suspicion, India Today, July 21, 2019 ^ Cone, James H. (2011). The Cross and the Lynching Tree . Maryknoll, New York: Oribis Books. pp. 134. ^ "Strange Fruit". Pbs.org. PBS Independent Lens credits the music as well as the words to Meeropol, though Billie Holiday's autobiography and the Spartacus article credit her with co-authoring the song. ^ Scott, A. O. (December 24, 2015). "Review: Quentin Tarantino's 'The Hateful Eight' Blends Verbiage and Violence". NYTimes.com. p. C1 . Retrieved September 3, 2017 . ^ Plante, Chris (December 31, 2015). "The Hateful Eight is a play, and a miserable one at that". The Verge. Vox Media, Inc. Retrieved September 3, 2017 . ^ Goldfarb, Kara (May 21, 2018). "The Brutal End Of Dutchman Johan de Witt, Who Was Torn Apart And Eaten By His Own People". All That's Interesting . Retrieved August 24, 2018 . ^ Abele, Robert (March 10, 2016). " 'Admiral' makes Netherlands' military history a Hollywood-style spectacle". Los Angeles Times . Retrieved March 22, 2019 . References [ edit ] Auslander, Mark, "Holding on to Those Who Can't be Held": Reenacting a Lynching at Moore's Ford, Georgia", Southern Spaces, November 8, 2010."The Real Judge Lynch" (December 1901), The Atlantic MonthlyQuinones, Sam, True Tales From Another Mexico: the Lynch Mob, the Popsicle Kings, Chalino and the Bronx (University of New Mexico Press): recounts a lynching in a small Mexican town in 1998.Without Sanctuary: Lynching Photography in America by James Allen, Hilton Als, United States Rep. John Lewis and historian Leon F. Litwack (Twin Palm Publishers: 2000). ISBN 978-0-944092-69-9.Etymology OnLineFleming, Walter Lynwood (1911). "Lynch Law" . In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclop...dia Britannica. Vol. 17 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 169. Gonzales-Day, Ken, Lynching in the West: 1850''1935. Duke University Press, 2006.Markovitz, Jonathan, Legacies of Lynching: Racial Violence and Memory. University of Minnesota Press, 2004.Before the Needles, Executions (and Lynchings) in America Before Lethal Injection. Details of thousands of lynchingsHoughton Mifflin: The Reader's Companion to American History '' LynchingLynching in Georgia, New Georgia EncyclopediaLynchings in the State of IowaLynchings in AmericaLyrics to "Strange Fruit" a protest song about lynching, written by Abel Meeropol and recorded by Billie HolidayThe Lynching of Big Steve LongIda B. Wells, Lynch Law, 1893NAACP, Thirty Years of Lynching in the United States, 1889''1918. New York City: Arno Press, 1919.Encyclopedia of Arkansas History & Culture entry: Lynching in ArkansasSmith, Tom. The Crescent City Lynchings: The Murder of Chief Hennessy, the New Orleans 'Mafia' Trials, and the Parish Prison Mob, crescentcitylynchings.comFurther reading [ edit ] Allen, James (ed.), Hilton Als, John Lewis, and Leon F. Litwack, Without Sanctuary: Lynching Photography in America (Twin Palms Pub: 2000), ISBN 0-944092-69-1 accompanied by an online photographic survey of the history of lynchings in the United StatesArellano, Lisa, Vigilantes and Lynch Mobs: Narratives of Community and Nation. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2012.Bailey, Amy Kate and Stewart E. Tolnay. Lynched: The Victims of Southern Mob Violence. Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 2015.Bancroft, H. H., Popular Tribunals (2 vols, San Francisco, 1887).Beck, Elwood M. and Stewart E. Tolnay. "The killing fields of the deep south: the market for cotton and the lynching of blacks, 1882''1930." American Sociological Review (1990): 526''539. onlineBerg, Manfred, Popular Justice: A History of Lynching in America. Ivan R. Dee, Chicago 2011, ISBN 978-1-56663-802-9.Bernstein, Patricia, The First Waco Horror: The Lynching of Jesse Washington and the Rise of the NAACP. College Station, TX: Texas A&M University Press (March 2005), hardcover, ISBN 1-58544-416-2Brundage, W. Fitzhugh, Lynching in the New South: Georgia and Virginia, 1880''1930, Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press (1993), ISBN 0-252-06345-7Caballero, Raymond (2015). Lynching Pascual Orozco, Mexican Revolutionary Hero and Paradox. Create Space. ISBN 978-1514382509. Crouch, Barry A. "A Spirit of Lawlessness: White violence, Texas Blacks, 1865''1868", Journal of Social History 18 (Winter 1984): 217''26.Collins, Winfield, The Truth about Lynching and the Negro in the South. New York: The Neale Publishing Company, 1918.Cutler, James E., Lynch-Law: An Investigation Into the History of Lynching in the United States (New York, 1905)Dray, Philip, At the Hands of Persons Unknown: The Lynching of Black America, New York: Random House, 2002).Eric Foner, Reconstruction: America's Unfinished Revolution, 1863''1877. 119''23.Finley, Keith M., Delaying the Dream: Southern Senators and the Fight Against Civil Rights, 1938''1965 (Baton Rouge, LSU Press, 2008).Ginzburg, Ralph, 100 Years Of Lynchings, Black Classic Press (1962, 1988) softcover, ISBN 0-933121-18-0Hill, Karlos K. Beyond the Rope: The Impact of Lynching on Black Culture and Memory. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2016.Hill, Karlos K. "Black Vigilantism: The Rise and Decline of African American Lynch Mob Activity in the Mississippi and Arkansas Deltas, 1883''1923," Journal of African American History, 95 no. 1 (Winter 2010): 26''43.Ifill, Sherrilyn A., On the Courthouse Lawn: Confronting the Legacy of Lynching in the 21st Century. Boston: Beacon Press (2007).Jung, D., & Cohen, D. (2020). Lynching and Local Justice: Legitimacy and Accountability in Weak States. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Nevels, Cynthia Skove, Lynching to Belong: claiming Whiteness though racial violence, Texas A&M Press, 2007.Pfeifer, Michael J. (ed.), Lynching Beyond Dixie: American Mob Violence Outside the South. Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press, 2013.Rushdy, Ashraf H. A., The End of American Lynching. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2012.Page, Thomas Nelson, "The Lynching of Negroes '' Its Cause and Its Prevention," in The Negro: The Southerner's Problem. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1904, pp. 86''119.Seguin, Charles; Rigby, David, 2019, "National Crimes: A New National Data Set of Lynchings in the United States, 1883 to 1941". Socius: Sociological Research for a Dynamic World. 5: 1''9. doi:10.1177/2378023119841780Stagg, J. C. A., "The Problem of Klan Violence: The South Carolina Upcountry, 1868''1871," Journal of American Studies 8 (December 1974): 303''18.Tolnay, Stewart E. and E. M. Beck, A Festival of Violence: An Analysis of Southern Lynchings, 1882''1930, Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press (1995), ISBN 0-252-06413-5Trelease, Allen W., White Terror: The Ku Klux Klan Conspiracy and Southern Reconstruction, Harper & Row, 1979.Wells-Barnett, Ida B., 1900, Mob Rule in New Orleans Robert Charles and His Fight to Death, the Story of His Life, Burning Human Beings Alive, Other Lynching Statistics Gutenberg eBookWells-Barnett, Ida B., 1895, Southern Horrors: Lynch Law in all its Phases Gutenberg eBookWood, Amy Louise, "They Never Witnessed Such a Melodrama", Southern Spaces, April 27, 2009.Wood, Joe, Ugly Water, St. Louis: Lulu, 2006.Zangrando, Robert L. The NAACP crusade against lynching, 1909''1950 (1980).External links [ edit ] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Lynchings .Look up lynching in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.Multiple victims
    • Death of Joseph Smith (Joseph Smith, Hyrum Smith) (1844)Marais des Cygnes, KS, massacre (1858)Great Hanging at Gainesville, TX (1862)New York City draft riots (1863)Detroit race riot (1863)? Lachenais and four others (1863)Fort Pillow, TN, massacre (1864)Plummer Gang (1864)Memphis massacre (1866)Gallatin County, KY, race riot (1866)New Orleans massacre of 1866Reno Brothers Gang (1868)Camilla, GA, massacre (1868)Steve Long and two half-brothers (1868)Pulaski, TN, riot (1868)Samuel Bierfield and Lawrence Bowman (1868)Opelousas, LA, massacre (1868)Bear River City riot (1868)Chinese massacre of 1871Meridian, MS, race riot (1871)Colfax, LA, massacre (1873)Election riot of 1874 (AL)Juan, Antonio, and Marcelo Moya (1874)Benjamin and Mollie French (1876)Ellenton, SC, riot (1876)Hamburg, SC, massacre (1876)Thibodeax, LA, massacre (1878)Nevlin Porter and Johnson Spencer (1879)New Orleans 1891 lynchings (1891)Ruggles Brothers (CA) (1892)Thomas Moss, Henry Stewart, Calvin McDowell (TN) (1892)Porter and Spencer (MS) (1897)Phoenix, SC, election riot (1898)Wilmington, NC, insurrection (1898)Julia and Frazier Baker (1898)Pana, IL, riot (1899)Watkinsville lynching (1905)Atlanta race riot (1906)Kemper County, MS (1906)Walker family (1908)Springfield race riot of 1908Slocum, TX, massacre (1910)Laura and L.D. Nelson (1911)Harris County, GA, lynchings (1912)Forsyth County, GA (1912)Newberry, FL, lynchings (1916)East St. Louis, IL, riots (1917)Lynching rampage in Brooks County, GA (1918)Jenkins County, GA, riot (1919)Longview, TX, race riot (1919)Elaine, AR, race riot (1919)Omaha race riot of 1919Knoxville riot of 1919Red Summer (1919)Duluth, MN, lynchings (1920)Ocoee, FL, massacre (1920)Tulsa race massacre (1921)Perry, FL, race riot (1922)Rosewood, FL, massacre (1923)Jim and Mark Fox (1927)Thomas Shipp and Abram Smith (1930)Tate County, MS (1932)Thomas Harold Thurmond and John M. Holmes (1933)Roosevelt Townes and Robert McDaniels (1937)Beaumont, TX, Race Riot (1943)O'Day Short, wife, and two children (1945)Moore's Ford, GA, lynchings (1946)Harry and Harriette Moore (1952)Anniston, AL (1961)Freedom Summer Murders (James Chaney, Andrew Goodman, Michael Schwerner) (1964)Henry Hezekiah Dee and Charles Eddie Moore (1964)

• Clips
  • 37. Clarence Thomas High-Tech Lynching.mp3
  • 38. CREATED EQUAL Clarence Thomas in his own words 1.1.mp3
  • 38a. Biden says Floyd's death has a worldwide impact than Martin Luther King, Jr's assasination.mp3
  • 39. CREATED EQUAL Clarence Thomas in his own words 1.2.mp3
  • 40. CREATED EQUAL Clarence Thomas in his own words 1.3.mp3
  • 02. Terror Lynching in America 1.mp3
  • 2a. TBC12 Neely Fuller - Definition of Racism (white supremacy) 1.mp3
  • 2b. NEELY FULLER JR - THE SILLY MODE 1.mp3
  • 2c. NEELY FULLER JR - THE SILLY MODE 2.mp3
  • 03. TBC73 - Juror Says Jussie Smollett’s Story Made No Sense 1.mp3
  • 04. TBC73 - Senate passes anti-lynching bill 1.mp3
  • 05. Hanging - Worst Punishments in the History of Mankind 1.mp3
  • 06. Hanging - Worst Punishments in the History of Mankind 2.mp3
  • 07. What It Was Actually Like To Be Present At A Frontier Hanging 1.mp3
  • 08. Terror Lynching in America 2.mp3
  • 08a. Terror Lynching in America 3.mp3
  • 09. How lynching still affects American politics The Economist 1.mp3
  • 10. How lynching still affects American politics The Economist 2.mp3
  • 11. How lynching still affects American politics The Economist 3.mp3
  • 11a. How lynching still affects American politics The Economist 4.mp3
  • 12. The Origins of Lynching Culture in the United States 1.mp3
  • 13. Honorable Minister Louis Farrakhan - Willie Lynch 1.1.mp3
  • 14. Honorable Minister Louis Farrakhan - Willie Lynch 1.2.mp3
  • 15. The Origins of Lynching Culture in the United States 2.mp3
  • 16. The Origins of Lynching Culture in the United States 3.mp3
  • 17. TBC61 - Why Is ‘Karen’ the Latest Name to Be Used as an Insult 1.mp3
  • 20. What is MFAC explained (DONATION)..mp3
  • 24. NEELY FULLER JR - THE SILLY MODE 3.mp3
  • 25. NEELY FULLER JR - THE SILLY MODE 4.mp3
  • 26. Red Summer Voice of Freedom American Experience PBS 1.mp3
  • 27. Red Summer Voice of Freedom American Experience PBS 2.mp3
  • 28. TBC43 - How 'Communism' Brought Racial Equality To The South 2 (Red Sharecroppers).mp3
  • 29. Communist Revolution in America - The Red Scare 1919 I THE GREAT WAR 1919 1.mp3
  • 30. Communist Revolution in America - The Red Scare 1919 I THE GREAT WAR 1919 2.mp3
  • 31. Mike Murdock - I love new money! (DONATION SHORT).mp3
  • 32. Russia Has Always Targeted Black Americans 1.mp3
  • 33. Russia Has Always Targeted Black Americans 2.mp3
  • 33a. Testimony of Paul Robeson before the House Committee on Un-American Activities, June 12, 1956 1.mp3
  • 34. Russia Has Always Targeted Black Americans 3.mp3
  • 35. Russia Has Always Targeted Black Americans 4.mp3

• Music in this Episode
  • Intro: Kanye West - Blood on the Leaves 11 seconds
  • Outro: Nina Simone - Strange Fruit (Blood on the leaves)

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